Semiconductors

What are Semiconductors?

 

Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as most ceramics).  Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.  In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.

Due to their role in the fabrication of electronic devices, semiconductors are an important part of our lives.  Imagine life without electronic devices.  There would be no radios, no TV's, no computers, no video games, and poor medical diagnostic equipment.  Although many electronic devices could be made using vacuum tube technology, the developments in semiconductor technology during the past 50 years have made electronic devices smaller, faster, and more reliable. Think for a minute of all the encounters you have with electronic devices.  How many of the following have you seen or used in the last twenty-four hours?  Each has important components that have been manufactured with electronic materials.

microwave oven                     electronic balance                              video games
radio                                       television                                            VCR
watch                                      CD player                                           stereo
computer                                lights                                                  air conditioner
calculator                                telephone                                            musical greeting cards
diagnostic equipment             clock                                                   refrigerator
car                                           security devices                                 stove

Advances in the field of electronics can continue to improve our lives.  Learning about electronic materials can help you understand and be able to participate in the fields of communication, computers, medicine, the basic sciences and engineering.  All of these fields use electronics extensively. 

Future Trends

Since the late 1950's, the discovery and invention of new electronic semiconductor materials and the drastic reduction in the size of electronic devices has moved at a rapid pace.  As a result, the speed of electronic devices (particularly integrated circuits) has grown exponentially over the same time period.  Great strides have been made by companies such as Bell Laboratories, Intel, Western Electric, American Telephone and Telegraph, Motorola, Rockwell, and IBM.

In 1975, Gordon Moore gave a famous talk at the International Electronic Devices Meeting (IEDM) in which he predicted a growth in microchip complexity of roughly a factor of two every year.  In most areas of electron device production, his predictions have been met or exceeded.  The push for smaller dimensions, which allow for increased functionality and faster devices, also creates problems of long term reliability and heat dissipation.  New device designs, new materials, and lower voltages are being employed to make the next generation of devices. 

One extremely important area of semiconductor technology is the field of telecommunications.  The new "Information Super Highway" requires technology which can transmit and receive information at high rates.  One approach which is already being applied to this area is optoelectronics or the use of light to transmit information.  Electrons are used to transfer information within computers, but most information sent over long distances uses light pulses traveling through fiber optic cables.  The laser diodes which create these pulses and semiconductor receivers that detect the pulses are areas of intensive research. 

It is clear that semiconductor technology has and will continue to play a major role in the development of the information age.

 

Scientific Principles

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors:

All materials have electrical properties that allow them to be organized into three broad categories: conductors, insulators and semiconductors.  Metals (pure elements and alloys) are typically conductors of electricity.  Thousands of miles of aluminum and copper wires crisscross the country bringing electricity into our homes and places of work.  A relatively small number of nonmetallic substances can also be classified as conductors.  Also, a very few ceramic compounds have exhibited the unusual property of superconductivity at the frigid temperature of liquid nitrogen or below.  The nonmetallic elements and their compounds fall into the class of electrical insulators.  Most ceramics and plastics do not conduct electricity under ordinary circumstances.  Plastic coatings are frequently found covering copper wires to protect the user from shock and keep devices from short circuiting.  Ceramic knobs are used where electrical wires are attached to utility poles or to the back of a house. The third group of materials, the semiconductors, can be understood from their name, to fall somewhere midway between conductors and insulators. 

Although pure elements such as silicon play an important role in many semiconductor devices, it is most often utilized by adding very small but controlled amounts of impurities in order to alter its properties.  Silicon-based materials dominate in the semiconductor industry and in electronic devices like computers and calculators, but a number of other compounds are also used extensively--including GaAs (or gallium arsenide) which is the material used in the laser of a CD player.  Some other combinations of elements that exhibit semiconductor properties are indicated on the periodic table below (See Figure 1).  In the readings and lab activities that follow, the emphasis is on what semiconductor materials are, how they are used, what  properties they possess, and why they behave as they do.

 

                                   

 

Figure 1:        Elements found in elemental and compound semiconductors.  Group IV are                     elemental  semiconductors.  Compound semiconductors can be formed by                                   combining Groups III and V or II and VI.

Electrical Conductivity:

Electrical Conductivity is a function of a material’s ability to carry an electrical current.  The conductivity (s) of a material is determined by taking the reciprocal of the measured electrical resistance (R) to the flow of electricity in a length (L) of material divided by the cross-sectional area (A).


See Figure 2 for comparisons of conductivities in materials.  Conductivity is temperature dependent.  As the temperature increases, the conductivity of a metal decreases.  In contrast, the conductivity of pure semiconductors and insulators increases as the temperature increases.  Controlling and changing the conductivity of materials is one of the challenges facing electronic material scientists.

Figure 2:        Electrical conductivities of some common materials.

When an electric field is applied, electrons may flow through a material if there are empty states in the outer (valence) shells of the atoms that make up the material.  An electron will not easily transfer between atoms if there is not a vacant state of similar energy in the receiving atom for it to occupy.  We model the empty and filled states (electron energy levels) using quantum theory.  A single atom has electrons localized about itself.  An atomic orbital of one atom may overlap with an atomic orbital of another atom forming two molecular orbitals.  One, called the bonding molecular orbital, is of low energy and the other with higher energy is called the anti-bonding molecular orbital.  As more and more atoms assemble to form a solid, the number of bonding and anti-bonding orbitals of about the same energy increases, and they begin to take on the characteristics of an energy band.  (See Figure 3). The energy differences between orbitals within a band is slight.  Electrons can move freely among these orbitals within an energy band as long as the orbitals are not completely occupied.  The highest occupied energy band is called the valence band.  But, there is a region that separates the valence band from the conduction band where there are no orbitals.  Electrons are not allowed to have these energies.  In insulators, this energy gap is relatively large and in semiconductors, the energy gap is intermediate.

 

Figure 3:        The energy bands of metals, semiconductors and insulators.  For the insulators and                     semiconductors, the lower band is called the valence band and the higher band is                        called the conduction band.  The lower energy band in metals is partially filled with                  electrons.        

Atoms that form metallic conductors have many partially and fully unoccupied levels with similar energies:  a large number of mobile charge carriers are able to move across the material when an electrical potential (voltage) is applied.  In a semiconductor or an insulator, the valence band is completely filled with electrons in bonding states so that conduction cannot occur.  There are no vacant levels of similar energy on neighboring atoms.  At absolute zero, its anti-bonding states (the conduction band) are completely empty.  There are no electrons there to conduct electricity.  This is why insulators cannot conduct.  In the case of semiconductors, as temperature increases, electrons in the valence band acquire sufficient energy to be promoted across the “energy gap” into the conduction band. When this occurs, these promoted electrons can move and conduct electricity.  The smaller the band gap, the easier it is for electrons to move to the conduction band.

An Analogy:

An analogy to explain this conduction process might help.  Imagine a superhighway in Los Angeles with four local traffic lanes and four express lanes going north (the direction opposite the electric field).  Now imagine that construction has stopped traffic in all the express lanes (valence band).  Meanwhile the local traffic lanes (the conduction band) are totally empty because everyone decided to take the express lanes to go faster.  No one can move on the express lanes, and there are no cars on the local lanes so no one gets anywhere.  Suddenly, the LA Raiders football team (heat energy) gets out of another bus stuck in the traffic and decides to lift cars over the barrier (the energy gap) into the local lanes.  The higher the barrier is, the slower the team will lift cars over the barrier, and the fewer cars get to move.  Every time a car is lifted over the barrier, it gets to move so "current flow" begins.  Every time a car is removed from the express lane, other cars can move into the hole it leaves, so some current also gets carried there (in the valence band).  Notice that the car in the local lanes moves in the opposite direction from the hole left behind!  Unfortunately, the cars in the local lanes get off at exits from time to time and more cars come into the express lanes to fill the holes so only a limited amount of current can flow.

This analogy works well to explain conduction in pure (intrinsic) semiconductors in which the charge carriers come from the chemical bonds in the substance itself.  Heat energy in a semiconductor increases the number of electrons promoted into the otherwise empty conduction band; the vacancies (or holes) created in this process allow mobility of electrons in the valence band through the material.  At high temperatures these semiconductors are relatively good conductors because there are a larger number of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band available for electron movement.  But at low temperatures, intrinsic semiconductors are insulators since the number of electrons and holes is diminished.   At absolute zero, an intrinsic semiconductor would have no electrons in the conduction band.  However, the most important semiconductors are of the extrinsic type, where some impurity (another element) has been intentionally added in the solid to increase the conductivity.  The properties of an extrinsic semiconductor are governed by the presence of these impurities.

Doping:

Doping can produce two types of semiconductors depending upon the element added.  If the element used for doping has at least one more valence electron than the host semiconductor, then an n-type (negative type) semiconductor is created.  For example, if arsenic is added to a silicon crystal, the arsenic has one more valence electron (5) than silicon (4).  That extra electron is available to carry a current. So an As atom in Si is like a car that decides to get onto the local lanes of the LA freeway since the express lanes are clogged.  With silicon or other Group IV semiconductors, any member of Group V (nitrogen is not used) could form an n-type semiconductor.  If the semiconductor is doped with an element having at least one less electron than the host material, then a p-type (positive type) semiconductor is formed.  As an example, if silicon is doped with aluminum (three valence electrons), a hole will be formed in the valence band.  Again any member of Group III could dope a host semiconductor from Group IV and show the same effect.  The solid would have a "positive" hole in its electronic structure that would move in the opposite direction of the electron flow .  Thus a p-type semiconductor would be formed.  This would be as if the football team picked up a car and placed it on the median between the express lanes and the local lanes.  Doping cannot be done to the point where it disturbs the crystalline structure of the host semiconductor.  Doping is done in the range of parts per million concentrations, but may be up to a few parts per thousand. A semiconductor doped to several parts per thousand level has a conductivity close to that of a poor metal.  Thought question about Figure 4:  Why are the levels of the n-type and p-type dopants slightly different from the levels in the intrinsic semiconductor? 

 

Figure 4:        A p-type and n-type semiconductor.  The fifth valence electron of the n-type dopant                   can easily jump to the conduction band and carry current.  In the p-type                           semiconductor, electrons are easily promoted to the vacant level in the dopant.  This                   creates a hole in the valence band which can carry current by traveling in the                   opposite direction of electron flow. 

 

Hole Concept:

A couple of additional analogies might help to explain the hole concept.  For the first one, you will need six chairs and five students.  Line up the six chairs and have the five students sit in a row leaving the chair on the right vacant.  Assume that the outside current terminals are positive to the right and negative to the left.  As the flow of excited electrons moves through the crystal toward the positive terminal, so electrons from a bonded site move toward the positive terminal into an adjacent hole causing the hole to migrate toward the negative terminal.  Have the students (electrons) move one chair toward the right;  notice that the empty chair (positive hole) has moved, effectively to the left.

The second demonstration requires a glass test tube filled with glycerin and stoppered.  Be sure to leave an air bubble inside the stoppered tube.  The glycerin represents the electrons and the air bubble represents the positive holes.  As the tube is inverted and the electrons move in their direction (down - due to gravity in this case but due to the positive terminal in an electronic scenario), the air bubble moves in the opposite direction ( up - due to density differences in this case but due to attraction toward the negative terminal in the electrical case.)  After these two demonstrations, it should be clear that the semiconductor holes and electrons move in opposite directions.      

 

Figure 5:        Diagram of a bubble (hole) traveling upward in an inverted test tube of glycerin.

 

Application and Research:

The building block of most semiconductor devices involves combining p-type and n-type regions into p-n junctions.  Imagine bringing together two crystals where one is n-type and the other is p-type.  A few of the electrons from the n-type flow toward the p-type material.  At the point where the p-type and n-type meet (the interface) electrons from the n-side fill the holes on the p-side and a build-up of oppositely charged ions is generated, and thus a potential across the barrier forms.  This build-up of charge is called the junction potential.  The barrier prevents further migration of electrons and the net current is zero.

If a voltage is applied to the p-n junction with the negative terminal connected to the n-region and the p-region is connected to the positive terminal,  the electrons will flow toward the positive terminal, while the holes will flow toward the negative terminal.  This is called forward bias and current flows.  However, if the positive terminal is connected to the n-type and the negative connected to the p-type, a reverse bias forms and no current flows due to the build up of the potential barrier.  In other words, these devices must be placed in an electrical circuit with the correct polarity, or they will not function.  This application of the p-n junction is used in many electronic devices.  Figure 6 shows the formation of a potential at a p-n junction.  Figure 7 shows the effect of forward and negative bias on the p-n junction.

Figure 6:        A p-n junction before and after the two materials are brought in contact.  When the                     two materials are placed together, electrons from the n-side combine with the holes                    on the p-side.  This results in a positive charge on the n-side of the junction and a                      negative charge accumulation on the p-side.  This separation of charge creates a                junction potential.  Note:  There are no electrons or holes at the junction, they have                    combined with each other.

 

Figure 7:        A p-n junction under forward and reverse bias.  Notice that in forward bias, the             barrier is lowered, while in reverse bias, the barrier is raised. 

Thought question:  In each case in Figure 7, which side is connected to the positive terminal of the outside voltage source?  Will electrons or holes carry current when the junction has this arrangement ?

Electronic Devices:

There are many electronic devices that function using combinations of p-n junctions such as diodes, solar cells and transistors.  In this section a brief explanation of each of these basic devices will be given.

The diode is a p-n junction application that acts as a rectifier for converting alternating current to direct current.  This is due to the ability of a diode to allow current flow in one direction but not in the other.

Solar cells are p-n junction devices which use sunlight to create electrical energy.    It is the energy of the sun‘s photons that causes the electrons to be promoted into the conduction bands and carry the current.  However, the current derived from the solar cell is small.  It takes many solar cells to produce enough current to do a large scale job.  If the energy output from solar cells could be increased, solar energy could be used for more than individual, isolated applications.

Transistors are another application of the p-n junction.  Transistors, unlike diodes, contain more than one p-n junction.  Because of this, a transistor can be used in a circuit to amplify a small voltage or current into a larger one or function as an on-off switch.  Transistors are of two main types: bipolar junction transistors (BJT's) and field effect transistors (FET's).  Roughly 95% of all electronic systems utilize one or both of these types of devices. 

BJTs are composed of three layers of doped materials, either n-p-n or p-n-p in configuration.  The BJT acts like a bump or dam in an open stream to control the amount of current let by; thus as the bump is lowered, more current can flow.  In the BJT, the height of the bump is controlled by the base current in the semiconductor.  The BJT was invented in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Brittain and William Shockley using germanium.  BJT's remained the only important three terminal semiconductor devices for about a dozen years after their invention, and helped to launch the modern electronics era. 

Since the early 1960's the FET has been considered one of the most important devices in solid state technology.  At present, many of the applications of BJTs have been taken over by metal-oxide semiconductor FET's (MOSFETs).  MOSFETs were theorized for many years before they were able to be manufactured.  The reason MOSFETs could not be made was that scientists had not yet developed techniques for growing high quality silicon dioxide (SiO2) on silicon.  The FET functions more as a gate for controlling the flow of current (like a valve on a faucet).  FET's are relatively simple to fabricate compared to BJT's, and they have proven to be extremely fast, reliable switches in miniaturized circuit components with much less power usage than BJT's.  Most modern microprocessors are based on FET devices--from pentium chips in PC's to the CPU's of super computers.  Transistors, diodes, and other electronic devices are combined in many different patterns to form today's integrated circuits.

The integrated circuit (IC) has been the workhorse of the “microelectronics era” which began in the late 1950’s.  These chips, usually made of silicon, consist of combinations of four fundamental electrical regions.  These regions contain resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors.  Since 1971, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) has allowed millions of such regions to be fabricated on a chip that is only one square centimeter.  Not only are these circuit elements getting smaller, they are getting faster as well.  For example today’s typical desktop pentium-based computer can perform tens of millions of operations per second, whereas contemporary super computers are rated in gigaflops (billions of operations per second).  Teraflop (trillions of operations per second) machines will be ready for production by the year 2000. 

Properties and Processing of Electronic Materials:

The dominance of electronic materials in this present information age is due in part to several fundamental scientific discoveries in the nineteenth century.  Most modern semiconductor-based devices require the chemical elements silicon, germanium or gallium (combined with arsenic), but none of these had been isolated or identified prior to 1824.  Though silicon is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, it proved very difficult to separate from its natural compounds such as silicon dioxide in ordinary sand and other silicate minerals.  Through persistence and ingenuity, a Swedish chemist named Berzelius finally obtained the elusive silicon.  He reacted silicon tetrafluoride with potassium metal and chemically reduced it from its compound in order to obtain the element silicon for the first time.

SiF4  +  4K  --->  4KF  +  Si  

Over ten thousand times more rare than silicon, the existence of gallium and germanium had not even been suspected until the table of elements was proposed by Mendeleev in 1868.  Within two decades, the discovery and characterization of these elements clearly showed the periodic table to be a tool, not only for recording chemical information but also for predicting the results of chemical research.  Finally, it was these same two elements along with silicon that provided the testing ground for the investigation of semiconductors several decades later.

According to very general trends of properties on the periodic table, it can be demonstrated that elements increase in metallic character when going to the left of a period (row) or down a family (column).  Thus it would be expected that the most metallic of elements would be found at the lower left corner of the table and the least metallic at the upper right.  This is made quite obvious by displaying an illustrated periodic table.  There is a gradual transition of properties from metallic to nonmetallic in going to the right across a period and up a family.  A line of division is commonly placed on the table which looks like a stairstep pattern with the elements falling on either side of this line being loosely classified as semiconductors.  See Figure 8.

 

 

Figure 8:        Periodic Table of the elements.  The elements to the left of the bold line are                                 metals and those to the right are nonmetals.  The highlighted elements are elemental                   semiconductors or used in compound semiconductors.

At the center of the representative elements, Group IV (carbon family) elements have been found to have some very important properties that are intermediate between metallic and nonmetallic.  Perhaps of greatest significance is the characteristic of being a semiconductor.  Excluding lead (and tin below its transition temperature), all the other elements in the family can have their atoms arranged in the same way as those in a diamond (pure carbon).  In this form, carbon has a very high resistance to the flow of electricity; thus it can be said to be a poor conductor and is classified as an electrical insulator.  At the other extreme, tin, in its common crystal arrangement at room temperature, has a relatively low resistance to the flow of electricity; thus it is a reasonably good electrical conductor when it is in its metal form.  However, tin has a transition temperature above which it has a diamond crystal structure and is a much poorer conductor.  Both pure silicon and pure germanium behave as perfect insulators at absolute zero (-273˚ C), but at moderate temperatures their resistance to the flow of electricity decreases measurably.  Since they never become good conductors, they are classified as electrical semiconductors.

When selecting a semiconductor material for electronic applications, a number of factors must be considered.  Of primary importance is the inherent band gap size (the energy difference between the valence and conduction bands).  Furthermore, the ordinary chemical and physical properties of the host material and its compounds play important roles as well.  Silicon has the advantage of forming a protective surface oxide when heated in oxygen.  Silicon also forms stable conducting compounds with many other elements, including metals, that help produce stable electical contacts to it. 

Like carbon, silicon has four electrons that can be used for bonding, and it is referred to as tetravalent.  Silicon forms several compounds that are analogous to those of carbon, for example, silane (SiH4) corresponds with methane (CH4), and silicon tetrachloride with carbon tetrachloride.  In these compounds, both the carbon and the silicon are centered between the four other evenly spaced elements making the molecular geometry tetrahedral.  In its extended compounds like the silicates in quartz, each silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms in an open tetrahedral network.  When silicon is purified in its elemental form, it has a molecular geometry similar to diamond where each silicon atom is surrounded by four others which are surrounded by four and so on in an extended network.

Gallium arsenide materials are very useful in opto-electronics because they allow highly efficient absorption and emission of light.  Future research will focus on maximizing the beneficial properties of each of these materials by mixing and layering them to improve opto-electronic sensitivity, power consumed and signal transfer rate.

There are two main steps in the manufacturing of semiconductor circuits for computers and other electronic devices, growth and fabrication.  First it is necessary to grow near perfect crystals of the semiconductor material, which are cut into thin, flat disks called wafers.  The second step, device fabrication, involves patterning the circuits, etching or depositing the circuit components on the wafer, and then sectioning the larger wafer into smaller chip size pieces called dies.  Fabrication of devices can sometimes involve more than a hundred steps. 

 

 

 

 

 

Crystal Growth:

Large, single crystals of semiconductors (Si and GaAs) are grown from the melt using the Czochralski technique.  The raw material (as pure as possible) is placed in a crucible and heated to a temperature above its melting point.  A seed crystal is placed in the molten semiconductor and withdrawn slowly in a rotating fashion.  This method can be used to grow crystals as large as twelve inches in diameter.  The final crystal is cylindrically shaped and must be cut into thin disks using a diamond-tipped saw.  These wafers are then polished using a grit of very hard, small particles, such as silica (SiO2).  Due to the nature of the solidification process, the final solid semiconductor is purer than the raw material that was used to produce it.  See Figure 9.

 

 

Figure 9:        The Czochralski technique for growing single crystal semiconductors.

Circuit Fabrication:

After semiconductor wafers of sufficient purity have been manufactured, circuit elements must be placed at the surface.  Circuit elements are added to the wafer using either etching or deposition.  An example of the use of etching in circuit fabrication would be the etching away of a few thousand Angstroms (10-8 cm) of the semiconductor between each device, effectively isolating the devices from each other.  Because small mesas are formed as a result of this process, it is called mesa isolation.  Most circuit elements, however, are deposited, implanted, or grown at the surface.  These can include insulators (e.g.. SiO2 is grown in the fabrication of MOSFETS) or metals (e.g.. Aluminum is deposited in order to connect devices on a chip.)  Dopants can be implanted at the surface of a wafer and allowed to diffuse into the material by heating it.  Both etching and deposition require a process called photolithography.  Figure 9 shows a typical photolithograpy process used for mesa isolation, and Figure 10 shows the depositing of a metal.  After many devices have been formed on the wafer, they are separated into individual chips by a sectioning process.

   

 

Figure 10:      A typical photolithography process for the isolation of a device on a chip.  In step                       A, a thin layer of a photosensitive polymer is placed on the chip.  In step B, light                         selectively exposes a portion of the polymer.  The unexposed portion is stripped off                    in a developing process in step C.  The unprotected surface of the chip is etched                     away in a chemical process in step D.  Finally, in step E, the remaining polymer is                  removed, leaving a mesa of unetched semiconductor, surrounded by an etched                  region.            

 

Figure 11:      Depositing a metal on a semiconductor.  In steps A and B, the chip is coated with a                     photosensitive polymer and light exposes the polymer in the region where the metal                   is to be placed on the chip.  In step C, the exposed area is stripped off in a process                       called developing.  Metal coats the surface in step D.  This is done by vaporizing                    a metal and allowing the vapor to condense on the surface of the semiconductor.                    When the remaining polymer is removed in step E, metal remains only in the region                   unprotected by the polymer.

Semiconductor Summary:

Semiconductor devices now influence our lives on a daily basis.  Although insulators and conductors are useful in their own right,  semiconductors such as silicon and gallium arsenide have dramatically changed the way in which billions of people live.  Their intermediate ability to conduct electricity at room temperature makes them very useful for electronic applications.  For example, the modern computing industry was made possible by the ability of silicon transistors to act as fast on/off switches.

All materials have energy bands in which their electrons can exist.  In metals, the valence band is partially-filled and the electrons can move through the material.  In semiconductors, however, there is a band gap that exists, and electrons cannot jump the gap easily at low temperatures.  At higher temperatures, more of the semiconductor‘s electrons can jump the gap; and its conductivity goes up accordingly.  Electrical properties can also be changed by doping (adding impurities to the semiconductor material).  This too, is one of their great assets.

Putting impurities in a semiconductor material can result in two different types of electrical behavior.  These are the so called n (negative) and p (positive) type materials.  Group V elements like arsenic added to silicon or germanium produce n-type by virtue of their extra valence electron.  Group III materials like boron produce the p-type since they have only three valence electrons.    When n-type material is connected to a p-type material, the device exhibits diode behavior.  That is, current can flow in one direction across the interface but not in the other.

Diodes not only act as rectifiers, they have also led to the development of the transistor.  A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a diode with a third material added to create a second interface.  Either npn or pnp types exist, but their basic operation is essentially the same as two diodes connected to each other.  Proper biasing of the voltages across each diode of the device can allow for large current amplification.  Today, metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETS) have replaced the BJT in many applications.  Now, millions of transistors can be placed on a single silicon chip or integrated circuit.  These IC chips are more reliable and consume less power than the large vacuum tube circuits of the past.

There are two main steps to the fabrication of electronic devices from the raw materials.  First, the semiconductor is melted and a seed crystal is used to draw a large crystal of pure, solid  semiconductor  from the liquid.  Wafers of the semiconductor are sliced and polished.  Next, the circuit pattern is etched or deposited using a photolithographic process.  Finally, the individual chips are sectioned from the original wafer.

Electronic computing speed has also increased greatly with the integrated circuit.  Cycle times of today’s computers are now measured in nanoseconds.  Opto-electronic (laser diode) research is extending the already huge rate at which information can be transmitted.  All in all, semiconductors continue to drive technological progress into the 21st Century.

References

 

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Braun, Ernest, and MacDonald, Stuart, Revolution in Miniature, Cambridge University Press, NY
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Dahlen, Philip, Semiconductors From A to Z, Tab Books, Blue Ridge Summit, PA  (1968).

Ellis, Arthur B., et al,  Teaching General Chemistry - A Materials Science Companion, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.  (1993).

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Gurnee, Edward, "Fundamental Principles of Semiconductors ", Journal of Chemical Education,           (1969) pp. 80-85.

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Mims, Forrest M., III,  Getting Started in Electronics, Radio Shack, (Catalog Number 276-        5003A), (1983).

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Werner, Ken, "Higher visibility for LED's  ", IEEE Spectrum, July 1994, pp. 30-39.

Resources

 

Many companies sell electronic components.  Below is a list of companies which can be contacted for resistors, diodes, thermistors, etc.

Allied Electronics, Inc.
1-800-433-5700

Cal-West Electronics
1-800-892-8000

Klaus Radio, Inc.
3103 Research Road
Champaign, IL  61821
1-217-356-1896

Mouser Electronics
958 N. Main Street
Mansfield, TX  76063
1-800-346-6873

Newark Electronics
1-800-298-3133

Tandy Corporation (Radio Shack)
1800 One Tandy Center
Fort Worth, TX  76102
(Radio Shack stores are found in many communities.  Check the yellow pages in your area.)

Materials Equipment Grid

Material	Lab 1	Lab 2	Lab 3	Lab 4	Lab 5	Lab 6
AC/DC power supply	LE	LE	LE	LE	LE	LE
battery (9 volt with snap leads)						DS
beakers  250 ml		LE
black electrical tape			DS
cadmium sulfide photoresistor			E
capacitors	E
cardboard tube			DS
choke coil	E	E
coaxial cable (10 cm)	E
diodes (germanium, zener)	E	E	E	E	E
duct tape			DS
filters (colored plastic sheets- red, green, yellow, blue)			LE
flashlight - small - bright						DS
flashlight bulbs	DS
fuses	DS
galvanometer	LE			LE	LE
glass rod  (5 cm)		LE
heat source (hot plate or burner)		LE
integrated circuits (I.C.)	E
LED sockets						E
LED's  (red, green, yellow, blue, clear, orange)	E	E				E
magnifier	LE
meter stick			LE
micro lamp (screw base, 2 -12 volt)			LE/E
micro lamp socket with screw base			LE/E
microchip	E
microscope	LE
milliammeter		LE		LE
multimeter (digital-DMM-preferred)		LE	LE		LE	LE
ohmmeter			LE
pegboard (5 holes square )						HIS
photo cells	E
photoresistors	E		E
potentiometer	E
rectifiers	E
resistors (assorted, 470,1k ohm)	E	E		E	E	E
solder	DS
stereoscope	LE
thermistors	E	E
transformers	E
transistors	E
vacuum tube	E
voltmeter		LE		LE
wire, uninsulated						LE
wire leads, insulated with clips	LE	LE	LE	LE	LE	LE

E = ELECTRONIC STORE        HIS = HOME IMPROVEMENT STORE
DS = DISCOUNT STORE            LE = LAB EQUIPMENT / SCIENTIFIC CATALOG

Experiment 1

Electronic  Familiarity

Identification of Electronic Components

Objective:  The object of this lab is to examine and identify several electronic devices.

Applications: 

Many individuals work with a variety of electronic components during a typical work day.  Scientists, engineers and repair technicians all must be able to recognize a variety of components by sight in order to accomplish their jobs.

Time: One half hour

Introduction:
 
Electronic devices and components of modern electrical circuits take many appearances.  Looking into a radio or calculator to see the working parts will baffle most people.  For you to have a better understanding of electronic devices and components, you need to be able to recognize some of the more common parts.  Because of their great variety of colors, shape and sizes it is possible to include only a few diagrams in this lab.  Catalogues from Radio Shack, Mouser, or Newark are good references for pictures. 

 

 

Materials and Supplies:

            microscope and/or stereoscope
hand held magnifier
electrical meters (voltmeters, ammeters, ohmmeters, or multimeters)               AC/DC power source
samples of electronic components from old radios, T.V.'s, calculators including:
samples of wire (10 cm)
coaxial cable
capacitors
choke coils
diodes
fuses
integrated circuits
flashlight bulbs
light emitting diodes (LED)
photocells
transistors
resistors
semiconductor rectifiers
zener diodes
solder 
thermistors
transformers
potentiometer
micro-chip
vacuum tube
photoresistors

 

General Safety Guidelines:

• Students should be careful of sharp edges while handling the small electronic devices.

Procedure:
           
            1. Spread some of the electronic devices on a piece of paper on your table or desk.

2. With the naked eye observe the appearance and shape of the devices.

3. Examine each device with a hand lens magnifier.

4. Use a microscope or stereoscope to look for details, especially on the transparent    
devices.

            5. In your notebook make a rough sketch of the devices and label each diagram.

Questions:

1. Which devices can be identified as metal/nonmetal conductors?

2. Which devices include semiconductor materials?

3. Which devices will resist the flow of electrons?

4. Which devices will allow the electron flow in one direction only?

5. Identify the uses for five of the examined devices.

6. Identify five devices used in microelectronics applications.

Teacher Notes:

• Teacher preparation time is about 10 minutes.

• The lab time depends on the number of devices being observed.

• A "junk box" may contain many of these items.  Check with a local electronic repair shop for discarded devices or have students bring old broken or discarded parts.

• To help students identify the devices make electronic catalogs available. (Radio Shack, Mouser Electronics, etc.)

• The teacher may want to break open some of the devices with pliers or a hammer to help students see what is inside.

Answers to Questions:

1. Wire, cable, choke coils, solder, flashlight bulbs

2. Diodes, IC chips, LED's, photocells, transistors, thermistors

3. All materials resist the electron flow to some degree.  Semiconductors and insulators 
have more resistance than metals.

4. Diodes, LED's, rectifiers

5. All solid state radios, TV's, printed circuits, calculators, computers (see glossary for
more help)

6. Integrated circuit (IC chip), diodes, transistors, photocells, LED's

Experiment 2

Hot and Cold

Temperature and Resistance of Electronic Materials

Objective:  The object of this lab is to show how temperature affects the conductivity (resistance) in various electrical materials and devices.

 

Review of Scientific Principles:

Heat:  As heat is applied to a crystalline solid, we say "it gets hotter"; meaning the temperature increases.  On the atomic level, the kinetic energy of the atoms has increased which means the atoms are moving faster.  However, in a crystalline solid, the atomic movement is limited to vibration around stable lattice positions.  As the temperature increases, the atoms vibrate at a greater amplitude and move farther from their stable lattice positions.  This motion has a negative effect on the ability of the material to conduct an electric current, causing it to have a greater electrical resistance.

Metals:  In a metal, the valence electrons are thought of as being shared by all the positive ions.  Therefore, the electrons are free to move throughout the crystalline lattice.  The electrons move randomly  throughout the crystal, until an electric field is applied to the material.  Then the electric field forces the electrons to move in a direction opposite to the field. Actually, the electrons still move somewhat randomly, but with a superimposed "drift".  This produces current. As the temperature increases, the positive ions in the crystal vibrate more, and more collisions occur between the valence electrons and the vibrating ions. These collisions hinder the "drift" motion of the valence electrons, thus reducing the current.  In summary, for a metal, an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance.  

Semiconductors:  In a semiconductor, at  0˚ K, valence electrons are in filled energy levels (bonds are formed by electron pairs filling the energy levels).  They do not respond to an applied electric field to produce current flow.  In the presence of an electric field, the electron motion is still  random; no net motion in one direction occurs (no current flows). These filled energy levels, which the valence electrons occupy, form the valence band.  In order for current to flow, electrons must move from the filled valence band to the empty conduction band. To make this move requires energy, which can be in the form of heat.  (Important:  the electrons do not move from a "place" in the crystal called the valence band to another "place" called the conduction band. The electrons have the energy associated with the valence band and acquire enough energy to have the energy associated with the conduction band. An energy change occurs, not a position change.)  At room temperature, many electrons will have the energy  needed to jump to the conduction band. As one electron moves out of the valence band and into the conduction band, a hole (vacancy) is produced in the valence band. Both the electrons in the conduction band and the corresponding holes in the valence band are considered charge carriers.  When an electric field is applied to the material, these electrons and holes "drift". The electrons in the conduction band drift in the direction opposite to the applied field, and the holes drift in the same direction as the applied field.  Thus, current is produced.  As the temperature of the material is increased, more valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to move to the conduction band (producing holes), so more current flows.  It is still true that as the temperature is increased, the atoms vibrate more and cause more collisions with the drifting electrons.  However, this opposing effect is negligible, compared to the increase in charge carriers.

Applications:

Different types of materials respond differently to temperature changes.  A computer engineer designing a circuit must be able to predict if the conductivity of each material in the device will be within an acceptable range over the expected temperature range of operation of the device. 

Time:  One hour

Materials and Supplies:

heat source for boiling water (hot plate preferred)
5 beakers for water baths
thermometer
choke coils or resistance spools
germanium diodes
thermistors
light emitting diodes (LEDs)
carbon resistors
glass rod (5 cm)
2 digital multimeters or a voltmeter and milliammeter
wire connectors with alligator clips
power supply (0 to 12 volts DC)

General Safety Guidelines:

• The heat source could cause burns.  Exercise caution.

• Be careful of electrical shock.

• Handle meters and samples with care.

• Wear safety glasses.

Procedure:

1. Set up five water baths of about 100-200 ml of water in beakers at the following  
temperatures: boiling, 75 ˚ C, 50 ˚C, 25 ˚C, and ice water.

2. Measure the temperature of each bath with a thermometer, thermistor, or
thermocouple.

3. For measuring the resistance of the device (choke or resistance coil) set up the
multimeter to read ohms and connect as in the following diagram.

 

4. Carefully holding on to the lead wires so as not to burn the fingers, immerse the
coil into the boiling water bath, until a stable value is received (for about one
minute) and record the resistance in the data table.

5. Follow the same procedure in the 75˚, 50˚, 25˚ and ice water.

6. Remove the coil and attach another device to the meter, following the same     
procedure for measuring the resistance.

Data and Analysis:

CONDITION	TEMP. oC	CHOKE COIL		GERMANIUM DIODE		THERMISTOR
BOILING WATER	100	oC	R	oC	R	oC	R	oC	R
HOT WATER	75
WARM WATER	50
ROOM TEMP	25
ICE  WATER	0

For each device, draw a graph, with the temperature (x-axis) vs. resistance (y-axis).

Questions:

1. Which samples had a change in resistance as the temperature increased?  What
direction was that change?

2. As their temperatures increased, what happened to the resistance of the
conductors, the semiconductors?  Does the change seem to be linear?

3. Did any of the examples not follow the general guidelines explained in the
introduction to the lab?  Explain.

4. Describe the motion of the atoms or ions in a crystalline solid as the temperature
increases.

 

5. What causes electrons to "drift"?

 

6. Describe the electron motion while current is flowing.

7. Explain how  increasing the temperature of a semiconductor decreases the
resistance.

8. Explain how increasing the temperature of a metal increases its resistance.

 

Extension:

For the thermistor, plot 1/T (oK-1) on the x-axis and ln R (natural log of the value of the resistance in ohms).  This graph is a straight line.  The equation of this line is:

ln R = (E gap ÷ 2k) x 1/T + ln Ro

where:
            k = 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K (Boltzman's constant)
            Egap = band gap energy (the difference in energy between the conduction and                valence bands) in electron volts. 

Determine the slope of the line from the graph.  (Egap ÷ 2k) = the slope, from the equation.  Solve this equation for Egap.

Teacher Notes:

            •Teacher preparation time is about 30 minutes.
                                   
• Resistance coils could be used instead of a choke coil.  (Short pieces of wire do not show enough resistance.)

• Other kinds of wire besides copper could be tried.

• Connector leads to devices could be extended by soldering on short lengths of wire.

• The carbon device should lose only a small percentage of its room temperature resistance, but semiconductor devices should go up appreciably at low temperature.

• As an example of a nonconductor , a length of glass rod could be tested.

• Use a Type K thermocouple for lower temperatures in conjunction with some digital multimeters.

• Thermistor probes are available form Vernier.

• The teacher should demonstrate proper hookups of meters and devices.

• Diode results work best if the temperature is taken from the boiling water and the ice water.

• For the extension activity, using the sample data, the value of Egap= 0.6 eV.

Answers to Questions:

1. All the devices changed their resistance as the temperature changed.  The
resistance of the choke coil (which is copper wire) increased as the temperature
increased. The resistance of the diode and the thermistor (which are made of
semiconductor material) decreased as the temperature increased.

2. The resistance of the conductor increased linearly.  The resistance of the
semiconductor decreased, but not linearly.

3. Student answers will vary. The devices do react as theoretically predicted.

4. As the temperature increases, the atoms or ions vibrate with greater amplitude
around their stable lattice positions.

5. When an electric field is applied, the electrons are forced to drift .

6. The electrons are moving randomly and drifting in the opposite direction of the
applied electric field.

7. As the temperature increases, more electrons have the energy needed to move to
the conduction band (more charge carriers means more current).

 

8. Greater amplitude of vibration of the ions in the lattice cause more collisions with
the valence electrons, which decreases the drift velocity.

 

Sample Data and Analysis:

CONDITION	TEMP. Co	CHOKE COIL		GERMANIUM  DIODE		THERMISTOR
		oC	R W	oC	R kW	oC	R kW	oC	R kW
BOILING WATER	100	97	44	98	0.29	98	1.0
HOT WATER	75	77	41	70	0.63	76	1.7
WARM WATER	50	51	37	44	1.2	42	5.2
ROOM TEMP	25	22	33	22	1.7	21	11
ICE  WATER	0	3.5	31	2.8	2.4	3	27

 

 

Experiment 3

Let There Be Light

Photoconductive Properties of Semiconductors

Objective:  The objective of this lab is to quantitatively determine how the electrical resistance of a cadmium sulfide photocell varies as a function of light intensity (distance).

 

Review of Scientific Principles:

Semiconductors often have the ability to respond to various forms of electromagnetic radiation.  Silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide and cadmium sulfide are materials that can have opto-electronic effects, which means their electrical properties are responsive to light.  This is due to the energy inherent in light radiation.  Absorbing this energy  can make some of the valence band electrons move to the conduction band.  As a result, the conduction characteristics of the material change.  In this lab, you will explore a cadmium sulfide "photoresistor" as it is exposed to various intensities and colors of light.  You will be looking for possible connections between light intensity or energy and conductivity.

Applications:

Opto-electronic devices such as photo-resistors, photo-diodes, and photo-transistors are being used more each year.  These devices are commonly found in switches for outdoor lighting, on-off switches for pole lights and security systems.  The "electric eye" can be used for a dimmer switch on the headlights of a car.  The photo-resistor is also an important device in fiber optic communications.  Photo-laser diodes are often found in the classroom in the form of pen sized laser pointers.

Time: One hour

Materials and Supplies:

cardboard tube (approximately one meter long and 3 to 5 cm diameter)
meter stick
black electrical tape and duct tape
cadmium sulfide photocell
light bulbs- white, screw mini-base, 3 to 12 volt (Radio Shack)
miniature lamp socket- screw base
voltage supply ( 0 to 12 volts DC )
digital multimeter or ohmmeter
wire connectors

General Safety Guidelines:
• The leads of the photocell and the light bulb glass are fragile, handle carefully.

• Avoid electrical shock.

 

Experimental Set-up

Procedure:

Equipment construction:
1. Obtain a cardboard tube from wrapping paper (or make a roll from cardboard
into about a 60 to 70 centimeter tube with about a 5 cm diameter and tape so it
will hold its cylindrical shape).  The diameter must be large enough to allow the
lamp socket to move through the tube while not allowing light to get in around
the socket.

2. Press the electrodes of the CdS cell through a piece of duct tape large enough to
cover the open end of the tube so that the cell is inside the tube and the electrodes
are on the outside of the tube.  (Several small pieces of black electrical tape work   
well.)

3. Place this tape with the cell over one end of the tube and fold the tape onto the
tube so that no light can get into that end.

4. Connect one end of each of the wires to the lamp socket by bringing the wire up
through the holes in the base of the socket and securing under the screw.

5. Tape the socket to the end of the meter stick so that the bulb extends away from
the end of the stick.

6. Tape the wires along the meter stick allowing the wire to extend past stick.

7. Insert the socket end of the meter stick into the open end of the cardboard tube
and slide the socket toward the CdS cell at the opposite end.  The socket should
slide freely, but not allow light to go past into the tube.  If the space around the
socket is too large, wrap some layers of tape on the outside of the socket.

8. Withdraw the socket, place a bulb in the socket and connect the wires to the
power supply or batteries.  Use the proper voltage for the light bulb being used.

9.  Make sure the bulb works, then turn it off.

Collecting data:
10. Connect the multimeter to the CdS photocell, and set to measure resistance in
kiloohms.  There should be a reading on the meter.

11. With the light off, slide the bulb into the tube until it just touches the CdS cell.

12. Take a resistance reading and record in the data table for a dark measurement.

13. Turn the light on and immediately take a reading for 0 cm from the cell.

14. Pull the meter stick and light out of the tube a distance of 10 cm and take
another reading.

15. Continue pulling the light out and taking readings for each 10 cm until reaching
about 60 or 70 cm.

16. Turn the light off and carefully peel the duct tape and photo cell from the end of
the tube in a way that it can be used again.

17. Using a small piece of colored filter supplied by your teacher, cover the CdS
cell and press the filter against the sticky tape to hold it in position over the cell.

18. Push the light into the tube and again take readings as in steps 11 through 16.

19. Repeat with the other colored filters.

Data and Analysis:

Record the observed resistance values for each color at the given distances.

 

For each light, graph the resistance on the vertical axis and the distance on the horizontal axis. (Use one graph if the sizes of the resistances are comparable.)

Questions:

1. What is the general shape of the graph?

2. What happens to the resistance as the distance increases (as
the light intensity goes down)?

3. What happens to the resistance as the color (energy) changes, assuming a fixed
distance, such as 20 cm?

 

4. Can you provide an explanation for either of the above phenomena? 

 

Teacher Notes:

•Teacher preparation time is approximately 30 minutes.

• Photocells and 6 volt miniature lights are available at Radio Shack.

• Filters of different colors may not allow the same amount of light  intensity to pass so be careful in comparing results from different colors.

• Time may dictate whether all these colors can be done by all the groups.  Perhaps different groups could be assigned different colors and class data collected.  The experiment may be done as a demonstration if supplies are limited.

• The light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, and the resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the light.

• An extension exercise could be to have the students work on an electric eye project.

Actual Experimental Data:
all data in kiloohms

Analysis with Answers:

1. What is the general shape of the graph?  Exponential; the intensity of the light is         inversely proportional to the square of the distance, so the graph should  resemble a          parabola (I = k * D2).  Other factors can  also influence the shape of the graph.  It is        not expected that the relationships will  follow a perfect pattern.
 
2. What happens to the resistance, in general, as the distance increases, that is as the
intensity goes down?  The resistance becomes larger.

3. What happens to the resistance as the color (energy) changes, assuming a fixed distance,
such as 20 cm? 

4. Can you provide an explanation for either of the above phenomena?  When the intensity         of the white light goes down, fewer valence electrons are promoted into the       conduction band.  As a result, the resistance of the photocell increases.  The         variation of measured resistance because of different colors of light hitting the    photoresistor  may be dependent on several factors.  One factor is that the           intensity of the light passing through the filter may vary because of the optical
            density  and thickness of the material.  Also, each color of light has a specific      energy (E = hf).  Therefore, the DMM readings  for the colored light may differ           from white light.

Extension Activities:

Experiment Design and Application Project

The Electric Eye

In the photoconductivity lab, where a cadmium sulfide photocell was used, you used only visible (optical) photon energy sources.  That is, only light bulbs were used.  Can you extend this laboratory concept by using non-visible energy sources?  (For example, "black lights" or ultraviolet (UV) bulbs are now quite common.  They could extend your energies even higher than your blue light did.  Infrared (IR) diodes (available at Radio Shack) could be used to extend you energies to lower values.

Using these suggestions as a starting point, can you design another experiment where data can be taken for other kinds of electromagnetic radiation?  How will you know if an infrared diode is working, if you cannot see it?  Will you test other kinds of photocells besides CdS? What kinds of things do you hope to discover about these materials?  Do all photocells respond to electromagnetic radiation in exactly the same way?  Can you plot the curves?  Can you explain why?  Which devices would make the best "electric eyes"?  Can you design a simple electric eye circuit and test it under actual conditions?

Today electric eyes are all around us on farms for turning on outside lights, on automatic street lights and on road constructions sites (for night time flashing lights).

 

Thermal Variation of the Resistivity of a CdS Photocell

Under constant lighting conditions, such as ordinary daylight, vary the temperature of the CdS photocell as much as possible.  Using the DMM, measure its resistance for each thermal environment from low to  high temperatures.  What is the relationship between temperature and resistivity in the photocell?

Experiment 4

What is Ohmic?

I-V Characteristics of a Diode vs. a Resistor

Objective:  The object of this experiment is to compare the I-V characteristics of a diode with those of a resistor. By measuring the voltage drop across the diode or resistor as the current is varied, the student will discover the relationship between the current and the voltage.

Time:  40-50 minutes

Review of Scientific Principles:

Requirements:  To make  a current flow through a material, three requirements must be met.
1) An electric field must exist; 2) charge carriers must be present in the material; and 3) the charge carriers must be mobile.  To establish an electric field, a voltage is applied to the circuit. The charge carriers are the valence electrons in a conductor, or the electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band of a semiconductor or insulator. The mobility is dependent on the crystal structure and the temperature.

Conductor:  For a conductor, such as a metal, the valence electrons occupy partially filled energy levels to form a valence band. The crystal structure of a metal allows the valence electrons in the valence band to move freely through the crystal. However, as the temperature increases, the atoms vibrate with greater amplitude, and move far enough from their equilibrium positions to interfere with the travel of the electrons. Only near absolute zero is the mobility at its maximum value.

Semiconductor:  For a semiconductor or insulator, the valence electrons occupy a filled valence band. Electrons must move from the valence band to the conduction band (leaving holes, vacancies, in the valence band).  Both the electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band are considered charge carriers.  The number of these charge carriers is dependent on the temperature and the material.  As the temperature increases, more electrons have the energy needed to "jump" to the conduction band.  (Important:  The electrons do not move from a place in the crystal, called the valence band, to another place, called the conduction band.  The electrons have the energy associated with the valence band, and acquire enough energy to have the energy associated with the conduction band.  An energy change occurs, not a position change.)

Doping:  Doping of a semiconductor material, by adding atoms with one more or one less valence electron than the base material,  is one method of increasing the number of charge carriers (such as adding Ga, with three valence electrons, or As, with five valence electrons, to Ge or Si which has four valence electrons).  Addition of a Group V element, such as As, forms an n-type material,  which  provides new "donor" energy levels.  Addition of a Group III element, such as Ga, forms a p-type material, which provides new "acceptor"  energy levels.  The energy needed for an electron to move from the valence band to the acceptor level as with Ga (forming a hole), or from the donor level to the conduction band as with As (yielding a conducting electron) is less than the energy needed to make the original  "jump" from the valence band to the conduction band of the pure semiconductor material.  Thus, for a doped semiconductor material as compared to a pure semiconductor material (at the same temperature), the doped semiconductor  would have more electrons in  the conduction  band (n-type), or more holes in the valence band (p-type). For and n-type material, the carrier of electricity is a negative electron.  For a p-type material, the carrier is a positive hole.  As the temperature increases, the atoms do vibrate with greater amplitude. However, the increase in number of charge carriers has a greater effect on increasing the material's conductivity than the reduction caused by the vibrating atoms.
Resistor:  When a voltage is applied across a resistor, an electric field is established.  This electric field "pushes" the charge carriers through the resistor.  This "push" gives the charge carriers a  "drift velocity"  in the direction from high potential energy to low potential energy.  As the voltage increases, the drift velocity increases.  Since the amount of current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the drift velocity, the current is directly proportional to the voltage, which produces the electric field, which produces the drift velocity. This is the origin of Ohm's Law.

Diode:  However, in a diode, the number of charge carriers is dependent on the number of electrons that have enough energy to move up an energy hill and across the p-n junction, producing current flow through the diode. The size of this hill, or energy barrier, is dependent on the amount and type of dopants in the semiconductor material of which the diode is made. As a voltage is applied (in the forward bias), the size of the hill is decreased, so more electrons have the energy needed to cross the p-n junction producing current flow.  The number of electrons with the energy needed to move up the hill and across the junction increases exponentially as the voltage increases. Thus, the current increases exponentially as the voltage increases.

Applications:

The behavior of components in a circuit is a very important aspect of circuit design.  Diodes are found in many semiconductor circuits.  Their non-linear I-V behavior makes them quite useful for a variety of applications.  Resistors are often used in series with another circuit component to reduce the voltage across that component or in parallel to reduce the current through a component. 

Materials and Supplies:

DC Power Supply
Germanium or Zener Diode
2-1K Ohm Resistors
6 lead wires (including those on the power supply)
Milliammeter or Galvanometer
Voltmeter

General Safety Guidelines:

• Always reset the power supply dial to zero, before building or changing the circuit.

• Keep your hands and the work area dry to avoid shock.

• Follow safe and correct procedures for operating the power supply.           

Experimental Setups:

Procedure:

Circuit set-up:
1. Build a circuit as shown in  Figure 1.  Do not turn on the power supply.

2. Check to make sure the lead wires on the power supply are connected to the DC 
terminals. 

3. Rotate the voltage and current (if applicable) dial to zero. Rotate the current dial  one
quarter turn  clockwise.

4. Now turn on the power supply.

5. Slowly rotate the voltage dial clockwise, and watch the milliammeter and voltmeter dials.
If the needle moves to the right, the meters are correctly connected. If the needle moves
to the left, reverse the lead wires on that meter.

Resistor  (forward):
6. Rotate the voltage dial clockwise slowly until the milliammeter needle shows full
deflection. Record this milliameter and voltmeter reading as the maximum, I max and
Vmax.

7. Divide the value of Imax by 5, This the increment, ∆I, by which you will increase the
current.  (You will collect 5 sets of data.)

8. Rotate the voltage dial to zero.

9. Rotate the voltage dial  clockwise slowly, until the milliammeter reads ∆I.

10. Record the values of I and V in the resistor data table.

11. Increase the voltage until the milliammeter reads 2∆I.

12. Record the values of I and V in the data table in rows 1-5.

13. Continue to increase the voltage and record I and V, until you reach Imax.

14. Rotate the voltage dial to zero.

Resistor (reverse):
15. Reverse the resistor, so the current will flow through it in the opposite direction.

16. Repeat steps 10-16, recording the values of  I and V as negative numbers in the resistor
data table in rows 6-10.

Diode (forward):
17. Remove the resistor from the circuit and replace it with the diode as shown in Figure 2.

18. Check to make sure the positive end of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of
the power supply.

19. Repeat steps 6-14, however, this time divide the Imax by 10, and record the data in the
diode data table.

Diode ( reverse):
20. Reverse the diode and repeat steps 9-14, using the same values of ∆I as in step 19. Record these values of I and V as negative numbers.

21. Turn off the power supply.

22. Disconnect the lead wires and replace the equipment in their appropriate places.

 

Data and Analysis:

Resistor Data Table          

 

Divide the value of V (volts) by the value of I (amps) to find values of V/I, and complete the data table.


Diode Data Table

           
Divide V (volt) by I (amp) to find V/I (Ω), and complete the data table.

Questions:

1. Plot the voltage (horizontal axis) vs. the current (vertical axis) from the resistor and
diode data table on graph paper.

2. What is the shape of the graph of the data for the resistor?

 

3. What is the shape of the graph of the data for the diode?

 

4. If the shape is linear, determine the slope and the equation of the line.

 

5. Compare the slope with the V/I values.

6. According to Ohm's Law, V/I represents what measurable quantity?

7. The slope of the line, ∆I / ∆V, represents what measurable quantity?

8. For the graph that is nonlinear, how did the values of V/I vary as the values of V
increased?

9. Which device conducts electricity both directions?

10. Which device conducts electricity only in one direction?

11. Name the 2 types of charge carriers.

12.  In a metal, what conducts electricity (carries charge)?

13.  In a semiconductor, what carries charge?

14.  In a resistor, increased voltage has what effect on the charge carriers?

15.  In a diode, what changes to allow more current to flow as the voltage is increased?

 

   

Extension:

Plot  V (volt) on the x-axis and ln I (natural log of the values of I in amps, not milliamps)  on the y-axis, for the data from the diode section for the experiment (in forward bias).  The equation for this relationship is:

I = Io  (expeV/kT -1)
where the values of the variables and constants are:
                        e = 1 electron volt/volt
                        V = volts
                        k = 8.62 x 10-5 electron volts / ˚ K
                        T = Temperature in ˚K
                        Io = current value when V = 0                         
                        I = amps

Solve this equation by taking the natural log of both sides.

ln I = ln Io + ln ( expeV/kT -1)

substituting the values of e, k, and T in the equation will prove that the value of eV/kT will be about 100V.  Therefore, expeV/kT will be exp100V which is much greater than 1, so we can disregard the 1. Now the equation is:

ln I = ln  Io +eV/kT

The slope of the graph (line) is e/kT.  From the graph, find the slope.  Set the value of the slope equal  to e/kT.  Slope = e/kT, using the values of k and e, solve for the value of T.  Compare this value of T to the room temperature in ˚K.
  

Teacher Notes:

      •Teacher preparation time is approximately 30 minutes.

      •This experiment  is designed to be used in the electricity unit of a physics class with students   
who have already learned how to set up circuits and use test meters.

•For the procedure steps:

1. The teacher should demonstrate the proper procedure for connecting an ammeter and
voltmeter in a circuit.

2. The teacher should demonstrate the proper procedure for operating a power supply.

3. If the power supply does have a current dial,  the student may have to adjust this dial to
allow sufficient current to flow through the circuit, as the voltage is increased.

4. If digital multimeters are used, use voltages from 0-2V as shown in the sample.

Answers to Questions:

1. Use separate graph papers, because the scale of each will be different.

2. This should be a straight line. Make sure the students draw the best line through the data
points; they should not "connect the dots".

3. This should be exponential. Have the students use a ruler (straight edge) to approximate
the slope of the graph as V increases, by drawing a tangent line at various points on the
curve.

4.  Have the students draw a large right triangle, representing the ∆I and ∆V, the sides of
the triangle. The units should be part of the description of the slope. The units may help   
the students relate the slope to the measurable quantity it represents.

5.  Since the slope is ∆I/∆V, its value should be reciprocal of  ∆V/∆ I.

6.  Resistance.

7. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.

8. The values of  V/I decreased as V increased.

9.  Resistor

10. Diode

11.  Electrons and holes.

12.  Electrons in the valence band.

13.  Electrons that have jumped to the conduction band and the corresponding holes in the
valence band.

 

14.  Increased voltage causes a stronger electric field, which pushes the electrons harder in
the direction opposite to the field, which increases the drift velocity; so more current
flows.

15.  As the voltage increases, the size of the hill (energy gap) is decreased, so more
electrons (at this temperature) can move up the hill and across the p-n junction.

Data and Analysis:
Sample Resistor Data Table          
(forward same as reverse)

                                               Sample Diode Data Table

           
* No current in the reverse bias

Experiment 5

Alternating to Direct

Rectifying Alternating Current

Objective:  The objective of this experiment is to illustrate how a diode can be used to rectify alternating current.  The student will use a galvanometer to determine the direction of current flow, when an AC or  DC voltage is applied to a circuit containing a diode in series with a resistor and a galvanometer.

Review of Scientific Principles:

For current to flow through a diode, the electrons must move up an energy hill and across the p-n junction. As a voltage is applied in the forward bias, the size of the hill is decreased, so more electrons have the energy needed to move up the hill and across the  junction (making current flow).  However, if the voltage is applied in reverse bias, the  hill is made bigger, so very few electrons have the energy needed to move up the hill.  Thus, a diode generally conducts current in only one direction.

Applications:

When  you plug an electrical device or appliance into an ordinary wall receptacle at your house, you are using 110 volt AC (alternating current).  The electricity was probably produced at a power plant by using a fuel to produce steam, to turn a turbine, to turn an electric generator.  The generator spins at 3600 RPM, which is 60 revolutions per second (60 Hz).  Many household items are designed to operate on AC, however, some items such as battery chargers, electric trains, and other toys are designed to operate on DC.  Diodes are used as rectifiers, to convert AC to DC.
           
Time: 20-30 minutes

Materials and Supplies:

AC-DC Power Supply
Lead wires
Galvanometer
1 - 1K ohm resistor
Diode (germanium, zener, or LED)

General Safety Guidelines:

•Make sure the power supply dials are set at zero when building or adjusting a circuit.

•Keep your hands and the work area dry to prevent shock.
Experimental Setup:

Procedure:

1. Build the circuit shown in the Experimental setup, and be sure to connect the positive 
terminal of the diode to the positive terminal of the power supply.

2. Use the DC terminals of the power supply.

3. Make sure the voltage dial on the power supply is set at zero.

4. Turn on the power supply.

5. Slowly rotate the voltage dial clockwise, and watch the galvanometer needle.  Do not
bury the needle.

6. Record the direction of needle movement.

7. Rotate the voltage back to zero.

8. Reverse the direction of the diode and repeat  steps 5-7. Do not increase voltage past 2V.

9. Disconnect the lead wires from the DC terminals, and connect them to the AC terminal
on the power supply.

10. Repeat steps 5-8.

Data and Analysis:

Questions:

1. Will the current flow through a diode both directions?

 

2. How should a diode be connected in a circuit so current will flow through it?

3. How does a diode effect  AC current?

4. Draw a graph of current (vertical axis) vs. time (horizontal axis) for AC current.

 

5. Considering how a diode affects AC  current, draw what you think a graph of current
vs. time should look like for the circuit you built using AC current and a diode.

 

6. Draw a graph of current vs. time for a DC current, like that produced by a battery.

7. How does the current produced by the AC - diode circuit differ from DC current
produced by a battery?

8. How does increasing voltage  effect the ability of a diode to allow current to flow?

9. Why does  a diode with a voltage applied in reverse bias restrict current flow?

10.Will a diode change alternating current to direct current (like the current produced by a
battery)?

Extension:

1. Use a hand generator, a resistor, and a galvanometer to show needle movement with
alternating current.  Use a 1KΩ resistor, to protect the galvanometer.

2. Use a frequency generator diode and an oscilloscope to show the wave form of
alternating current and rectified alternating current.

3. Obtain the schematic of a full wave rectifier, which uses diodes and capacitors to
produce approximately steady direct current.  Consult an electronics handbook for the
details.

Teacher Notes:
•Teacher preparation time is approximately 30 minutes.                            
•If the diode is improperly connected, the results will be reversed.
•The teacher should demonstrate proper operation of a power supply.

•If a digital multimeter is used, use the milli-amp or micro-amp scale.  The student               should record the sign (+,-) of the current value.

Answers to Questions:

1. No

2. Positive terminal of the diode to the positive terminal of the power  supply.

3. A diode will rectify AC current, which means the produced current will be a pulsating
direct current.  It will pulsate at the same frequency as the frequency of the alternating
current.

4. The graph will be a sine wave.

 

5.

 

6.

 

7.  The current produced by a battery is steady, while that produced by  the action of a
diode on AC current is pulsating.  A  5 amp DC current is more powerful than a rectified
AC current varying from 0-5-0 amps.

8.  Increasing the voltage decreases the size of the energy hill that  the electrons have to
move up, so more electrons can move up the hill and across the p-n junction, allowing
more current to flow.

9.  A reverse voltage increases the size of the hill, so few electrons have the energy needed
to move up the hill. Most meters will show no current flowing in the reverse direction.

10.  No, only with the addition of a capacitor will the current  begin to level off.

Sample Data Table:

 

EXPERIMENT 6

Working with LED's

Estimating Semiconductor Band Gap using LED's

Objective:  Observe visible light-emitting diodes (LED's) in simple electrical circuits, and relate the composition of semiconductor materials with their behaviors.  Estimate the band gap of a semiconductor material. 

Review of Scientific Principles:

Colored light can be produced in a number of ways.  On the one hand,  ordinary incandescent light bulbs may be used with filters that select out a portion of the complete color spectrum that is emitted from the glowing wire filament.  On the other hand, the familiar orange-red glow of neon lights is generated by electrically ionizing very small amounts of gases inside sealed glass tubes.  LED's contain neither a wire filament nor any gases.  The light emitting portion of a solid state diode is quite small so you will need a magnifying glass to see it clearly. Even though the diode may be enclosed in a colored plastic lens, the lens is not the cause for the color of the light observed.

In  LED's, electrical energy is converted into light energy.  The voltage required to switch on the LED is proportional to the energy of the light emitted from that LED.  Also by comparing the color of the light with a chart of the visible light spectrum, it is possible to assign a wavelength to the color of each LED.  Using this wavelength, a simple calculation can be made to approximate the energy of the electron transition taking place at the junction in the diode.  The colored light (made up of photons) is being produced by electrons that are relaxing across the energy gap in the semiconductor material.  The reverse process may also be observed in which light shining on a diode can be converted into electrical energy.

Applications:

LED's are very common and are frequently used as indicator lamps.  When the light goes on, electricity is flowing.  Whether it is a compact disc player, electric guitar amplifier, computer, monitor, or video game module, we always look for the little colored light to let us know it is working.  As common as they are, however, most people have no idea how LED's produce their bright, colored light; they simply expect it to happen.

 

Time:  One hour.  (More time is required if students will be assembling the circuits themselves).

Materials and Supplies:

Each student group will need: 
variable power supply (at least 0-6 VDC) with leads
one panel containing several different visible LED's (see note 1)
digital multimeter (DMM) and test leads with small alligator clips
magnifying lens
9V battery and snap connector,
470 ohm resistor
LED socket  (see note 2)
small, bright flashlight

General Safety Guidelines: 

•Do not stare long at any of the brightly lit LED's.

•Some of the wires may have sharp edges.

•Do not grasp any bare wires or connections with your hands.

•Be sure the power supply is set for 0-6 V (DC).  Turn it off when not in use.

Procedure:

1. Obtain a panel containing several different visible LED's.

2. Connect the power supply 0-6V DC to the panel leads.

3. Connect the DMM across the circuit, and set it for DC.

4. With the power supply at its lowest setting, turn it on.

5. Slowly dial up the voltage until and effect is noticed at one of the LED's.

6. Continue to slowly dial up voltage until you have observed all the LED's (do not let the
voltage reading on your DMM exceed 2.5V).

7. Now slowly dial the voltage back down, and observe the LED's.

8. Repeat steps 5-7.  Record the voltage at which you observe each LED to go on and off.

9. With all LED's on and shining brightly, compare their colors with a chart of the visible
light spectrum.  Or view the lighted LED's with a calibrated spectroscope.  Record the
wavelength in nanometers of the color that matches each LED. 

10.Turn off the power supply, and disconnect only its positive lead from the circuit. 
Leave the DMM on and its leads in place across the LED circuit.

11.With the room darkened, shine a small, bright flashlight on each of the LED's in the
panel.  Record the maximum voltage that you read from the DMM for each LED.

12.Obtain a 9V battery and snap connector with appropriate resistor and socket.  Insert a
green light LED in the socket with the long leg on the red side.  Shine it directly over
and against each of the LED's in the panel.  Record the maximum voltage for each that
you read from the DMM.

13.Repeat step 12 replacing the green LED with a red LED.  Record the voltage readings.

14.Test what happens when an LED is placed in the socket backwards.

15.Using a magnifying glass, make two scaled drawings of an LED--one from the top and
one from the side.  Indicate on your drawings where the light is produced.

Data and Analysis:

LED Color	Turn-on Voltage	Wavelength  of Light  Emitted	Energy of Light Emitted	Band Gap of Material	Composition of Material

Questions:

            1. In what order do the LED's light when the voltage is increased slowly from zero?

            2. Place the LED's in order according to increasing wavelengths.

            3. What is the relationship between the lists in questions one and two?

            4. From your observations, what kind of mathematical relationship exists between          the
numerical values for electrical energy (volts) and the wavelength of the colored light  
emitted?

            5. What effect does the white light source have on the LED's?  Why?

            6. Which color of LED caused a voltage reading in every LED on the panel?

 

            7. Which color of LED caused a voltage reading in only one LED on the panel?

            8. Explain your answers to questions six and seven by discussing the relationship           
between energy and color of light.

            9. In which LED is the diode composed of a material with the largest band gap?

            10. Calculate the band gap for the material in each diode in units of electron volts (eV) by
using the equation E = 1240 / l. Where l is the wavelength of light in nanometers
(10-9 meters).

 

            11. Compare the values calculated with a list of semiconductors and their band gaps. 
Which materials do you believe are present in the LED’s that you used?

Teacher Notes:

            •Teacher preparation time for this lab is approximately one hour.
     
•The panels can be constructed in a number of ways, but one that seems to work uses
ordinary 1/4 inch pegboard.  Cut a square that has at least five rows and columns of holes
(more or less depending on the number of LED's).  Make a red line down one side of a
row.  Pop an LED of each color (use colorless lens LED's to ensure that students realize
the colored light is not due to the plastic case) into a mounting clip.  Then press these
through the holes in the pegboard with the longer leg of the LED on the side of the red
line.  The legs may now be trimmed to any convenient length, but leave enough for
solder connections.  Now solder a noninsulated copper wire to each of the "red" legs and
one to each of the "black" legs leaving a least 2 cm for connections to the power supply.
Then solder a 470 ohm resistor to the wire on the red side.

•Solder a 470 ohm resistor to the red lead of the 9V battery snap connector.  Then solder an
LED socket to the other end of the resistor and the black lead from the snap connector.

•Sources for materials are: Radio Shack, Mouser Electronics (800)346-6873, Cal-West
Electronics (800)892-8000 (blue LED's can be purchased for $2.50 each)

•Rohm super-bright LED's from the Mouser catalog are a good choice at $0.15/lamp.  These are the catalog numbers:
red 592-SLH34-VT3
orange       592-SLH34-DT3
yellow       592-SLH34-YT3
green         592-SLH34-MT3

•See Ken Werner's article Higher visibilty for LED's in July 1994 IEEE Spectrum
magazine for a great summary of LED technology.

Answers to Questions:

1. red, orange, yellow, green, blue

2. blue, green, yellow, orange, red

3. opposite order

4. from observation, it is opposite or inverse

5. a voltage is produced in the circuit when it is shone on each LED because white light is a
combination of all colors of visible light

6. green (or blue)

7. red

8. green (blue) light is of the highest energy, and it is able to promote electrons across the
band gap in all the LED's, but low energy red light can only affect electrons in the red
LED with the small band gap

9. green (blue)

10. green (blue)

11. The published values of wavelengths for the LED's are red at ~650 nm, orange ~610
nm, yellow ~585 nm, green ~565 nm, blue ~470 nm observed colors may vary but
should fall between about 460 - 700 nm

Use the following information:
SiC                                  2.64 eV                  blue
GaP                                 2.19 eV                  green
GaP.85As.15                  2.11 eV                   yellow
GaP.65As.35                  2.03 eV                   orange
GaP.4As.6                      1.91 eV                   red

SEMICONDUCTOR UNIT QUIZ

 

Multiple Choice.
1. What characteristic clearly distinguishes semiconductors from metals and nonmetals?
A. luster          B. electrical conductivity      C. ductility      D. none of the above

2. In which column on the periodic table do the elemental semiconductors reside?
A. I                 B. III                                      C. IV               D. V

3. Which of the following are semiconductor materials?
A. gallium arsenide    B. germanium C. silicon         D. all of the above

4. Why are semiconductors valuable in modern electronics?
A. use low power                               C. fast switching
B. reliable                                           D. all of the above

5. Which electronic devices are primarily made from semiconductors?
A. transistors   B. resistors      C. capacitors   D. none of the above

6. How does the conductivity in pure semiconductors vary with temperature?
A. conductivity increases as temperature goes down
B. conductivity increases as temperature goes up
C. conductivity does not change with temperature

7. What explains why semiconductors have different electrical properties from metals?
A. more valence electrons                             C. band gap structure
B. fewer valence electrons                             D. no differences

8. Semiconductors exhibit which of the following opto-electronic properties?
A. photoresistivity                                         C. production of photoelectric currents
B. photoconductivity                                   D. all of the above

SHORT ANSWER.
1.  Name the 3 categories of materials based on their ability to conduct electricity.

 

2.  Label each as C-conductor, SC semiconductor, or I- insulator:
Copper wire____  Glass rod ____   Silicon chip _____

3.  Which would have a smaller energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band, glass or silicon? ____________

4.  In a metallic conductor, are the valence shells filled, empty, or partially filled? _________

5.  In a semiconductor, are the valence shells filled, empty, or partially filled? __________

6.  Are electrons in the valence band of a semiconductor in the bonding or anti bonding state? ______________

7.  At what temperature are there no electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor?

8. As one electron is promoted from the valence band to the conduction band, a _____ is formed in the valence band.

9.  As the temperature increases, (more, less) electrons can be promoted to the conduction band?

10.  Both ________ and ______ are considered charge carriers.

11.  Group ___ elements are used as dopants to produce n-type semiconductors, because they  have ____ _______ __________ than the original Group 4  material.

12.  Group __ elements are used as dopants to produce p-type semiconductors, because they have ____   _______   _________ than the original Group 4 material.

13.  A diode contains both  ____________ and ___________ regions.

14.  For current to flow through a diode, the positive terminal of the power supply must be connected to the ___-type material.

SEMICONDUCTOR UNIT QUIZ

 

Multiple Choice.
1. What characteristic clearly distinguishes semiconductors from metals and nonmetals?
A. luster          B. electrical conductivity  C. ductility        D. none of the above

2. In which column on the periodic table do the elemental semiconductors reside?
A. I                 B. III                                      C. IV               D. V

3. Which of the following are semiconductor materials?
A. gallium arsenide    B. germanium C. silicon         D. all of the above

4. Why are semiconductors valuable in modern electronics?
A. use low power                                           C. fast switching
B. reliable                                           D. all of the above

5. Which electronic devices are primarily made from semiconductors?
A. transistors B. resistors      C. capacitors   D. none of the above

6. How does the conductivity in pure semiconductors vary with temperature?
A. conductivity increases as temperature goes down
B. conductivity increases as temperature goes up
C. conductivity does not change

 

7. What explains why semiconductors have different electrical properties from metals?
            A. more valence electrons                             C. band gap structure
            B. fewer valence electrons                             D. no differences

8. Semiconductors exhibit which of the following opto-electronic properties?
A. photoresistivity                                         C. production of photoelectric currents
B. photoconductivity                                   D. all of the above

SHORT ANSWER.
1.  Name the 3 categories of materials based on their ability to conduct electricity.
 conductors, semiconductors, insulators

2.  Label each as C-conductor, SC semiconductor, or I- insulator:
Copper wire__C__  Glass rod _I___   Silicon chip __SC___   

3.  Which would have a smaller energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band, glass or silicon? _Silicon__

4.  In a metallic conductor, are the valence shells filled, empty, or partially filled?
  less than half filled

5.  In a semiconductor, are the valence shells filled, empty, or partially filled? __filled_

6.  Are electrons in the valence band of a semiconductor are in the bonding or anti bonding state? _bonding____

7.  At what temperature are there no electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor? 0˚K
8. As one electron is promoted from the valence band to the conduction band, a _hole_   is formed in the valence band.

9.  As the temperature increases, (more, less) electrons can be promoted to the conduction band?

10.  Both _electrons_ and _holes_ are considered charge carriers.

11.  Group   5_elements are used as dopants to produce n-type semiconductors, because they  have _one more electron_ than the original Group 4  material.

12.  Group _3_ elements are used as dopants to produce p-type semiconductors, because they have one less electron_ than the original Group 4 material.

13.  A diode contains both  _n-type_ and __p-type_ regions.

14.  For current to flow through a diode, the positive terminal of the power supply must be connected to the _p-type material.

Glossary

 

alternating current:  electric current that reverses direction periodically, usually many times per second.
ammeter:  an instrument used for measuring the electrical current flow in a portion of a circuit.
atomic orbital:  the region in space around the nucleus of an atom in which an electron with a given set of quantum numbers is most likely to be found.
band:  a collection of orbitals, each delocalized throughout the solid, that are so closely spaced in energy as to be nearly continuous.
band gap:  the energy separation between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band.
bias:  voltage applied to the electrodes in an electrical device, considering polarity.
biasing:  applying a voltage, often done to alter the electrical and optical output of a device such as a light emitting diode (LED).
charge coupled devices:  a charge transfer device that stores charge in potential wells and transfers it almost completely as a packet by translating the position of the potential well. 
choke coil:  an inductance device used in a circuit to present a high impedance to high frequencies without appreciably limiting the flow of direct current.
cleaved-coupled-cavity (C3):  two or more aligned semiconductor lasers which through destructive and constructive interference  are able to output light of a particular wavelength.`
conduction band:  the unfilled energy levels into which electrons can be excited to become conductive electrons; a band that when partially occupied by mobile electrons, permits their net movement in a particular direction, producing the flow of electricity through the solid.
conductor:  a material with a high electrical conductivity such as copper or aluminum.
crystal:  a solid composed of atoms, ions, or molecules arranged in an orderly pattern that is repeated in three dimensions.
delocalized (electrons):  electrons that are no longer bound to a given atomic nucleus and are highly mobile.
diode:  a two electrode semiconductor device that utilizes the rectifying properties of a p-n junction or a point contact.
direct current:  electric current which flows in one direction only. 
dopant:  an impurity element that is deliberately added to a semiconductor.
drift velocity:  the average velocity of a carrier that is moving under the influence of an electric field in a conductor, semiconductor, or electron tube.
electrical conductivity:  the ability of a material to carry an electric current; it is the reciprocal of resistivity with units of ohm-1 cm-1.
electrical resistance:  the measure of the difficulty of electric current to pass through a given material; its unit is the ohm (Ω).
electricity:  current passing through a conductor from a region of high potential to low potential.
electric generator:  a device which takes mechanical energy as an input and produces electricity (AC/DC) as an output.
electromagnetic radiation (waves):  a series of energy waves that travel in a vacuum at the speed of 3 x 108 m/s; includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays.
electron:  a negatively charged sub-atomic particle whose mass is 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
electron energy level:  In quantum mechanics, an energy which is allowed for an electron.
electronics:  a branch of applied physics and engineering concerned with controlling the movement of electrons in circuits.
extrinsic semiconductor:  a semiconductor material that has been doped with an n-type or p-type element. 
forward bias:  bias applied to a p-n junction in the conducting direction, majority carrier electrons and holes flow toward the junction so that a large current flows.
galvanometer:  an instrument for measuring a small electric current
germanium:  element 22, used mostly in early semiconductor devices.
hole:  a fictitious mobile particle that behaves as though it is a positively charged particle; holes are produced in the valence band when electrons from the valence band are promoted to the conduction band or an acceptor level of a p-type dopant.
incandescent light:  a gas filled (argon) bulb containing a metallic filament (tungsten) that produces light when a sufficient voltage is applied; an ordinary light bulb.
insulator:  a material with a low electrical conductivity; a type of material having a lower energy valence band that is nearly completely filled with electrons and a higher conduction band that is nearly completely empty of electrons as a result of a large energy gap between the two bands.
integrated circuit (IC):  a single semiconductor chip or wafer which now contains thousands or millions of circuit elements per square centimeter.
intrinsic semiconductors:  a semiconductor material that is essentially pure.
laser diode:  a solid-state semiconductor device that is capable of emitting coherent light.
leads:  wire segments used to connect devices in electric circuits.
light emitting diode (LED) :  a semiconductor p-n junction device that is optimized to release light of approximately the band gap energy when electrons fall from the conduction band to the valence band.
metal:  a material with a partially filled energy band; metals are generally malleable, ductile, good reflectors of electromagnetic radiation, and good conductors of heat and electricity; metals are usually identified by having electrical conductivities that decrease with increasing temperature.
monolithic IC technology:  a technique of circuit fabrication where all of the devices in a circuit are placed on the same chip.
multimeter:  a volt-ohm-milliammeter combined into one device
n-type semiconductor:  a semiconductor that has been doped with an electron donor.
ohmmeter:  an instrument for measuring electric resistance.
opto-electronic:  materials that can either produce an electric current from light or produce light from a current.
photocell:  a solid state photosensitive device whose current-voltage characteristic is a function of incident radiation; "electric eye" or "photoelectric cell".
photoconductivity:  light shining on the surface of a material increasing the conductivity.
photon:  a massless particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field carrying energy, also known as the light quantum.
photoresistor:  a device for measuring or detecting electromagnetic radiation.  The conductivity of the resistor changes with exposure to light.
p-n junction:  a boundary between p-type and n-type regions within a single crystal of a semiconductor material, a diode.
p-type semiconductor:  a semiconductor that has been doped with an electron acceptor.
quantum mechanics:  physical laws governing the behavior of matter and energy on a very small scale.
quantum numbers:  a set of four numbers necessary to fully characterize the state of each electron in an atom.
rectifier:  a circuit component, usually a diode, that allows current to flow in one direction unimpeded but allows no current flow in the other direction.
resistor:  a device used in electric circuits to limit the current flow or to provide a voltage drop.
reverse bias:  bias applied to a p-n junction in a direction for which the flow of current is inhibited; majority carrier electrons and holes flow away from the junction.

semiconductor:  a material whose electrical conductivity is midway between that of an good conductor and a good insulator; a type of material having a lower energy valence band that is nearly completely filled with electrons and a higher energy conduction band that is nearly completely empty of electrons, with a modest energy gap between the two bands; pure materials usually exhibit electrical conductivity that increases with temperature because of an increase in the number of charge carriers being promoted to the conduction band.
silicon:  element 14, the most commonly used semiconductor.
thermistor:  a resistive circuit component having a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance so that its resistance decreases as temperature increases.
transformer:  a magnetic coupling device in an AC circuit; they are capable of changing voltages as needed.
transistor:  a solid state semiconductor device able to amplify a signal in forward bias.
valence band:  the energy band containing the valence (outer) electrons; in a conductor the valence band is also the conduction band; the valence band in a metal is not full, so electrons can be energized to other levels and become conductive. 
voltmeter:  an instrument used for measuring the potential difference between two points in volts.