SITE WORK
Soil.
Soil Composition: Soil is formed by the chemical decomposition of rock; water, air, and temperature action on rock; and the decay of vegetable and animal matter.
Soil types.
- Rock or bedrock: is the strongest support for the foundation of a structure.
- Hardpan: is good foundation base for buildings.
- Gravel and Sand: are coarse-grained soils which provide an excellent base for building foundations, as well as excellent drainage properties, since they are relatively permeable.
- Silt and Clay (the least stable and predictable soil) may provide satisfactory support for building foundations, but required careful investigation.
- Quicksand: completely unsuitable for construction.
Soil exploration and testing. Methods depend on the location, topography, depth of water table, and magnitude of the structural loads anticipated.
- Test Pits: simple excavations which permits direct visual inspection of the actual soil conditions.
- Soil load tests: A platform is erected on the site and incremental loads are applied.
- Borings.
- Auger borings: most effective in sand or clay, bring up soil samples of 2 to 2.5 in. auger. Up to 50 feet.
- Wash borings: used when soil too compact to use auger. Water is forced through a 2-4 in. pipe. 100 feet or more.
- Core borings: most reliable. A diamond drill can penetrate through all materials, depths, and bring up complete cores of material.
- Dry sample borings: for laboratory testing. Samples are taken every 5 in.
Soil Properties. Specific gravity, grain size and shape, liquid and plastic limits, water content, void ratio and unconfined compression.
Soil and site problems. May involve inadequate bearing capacity, subsurface water, shrinkage, slippage and movement due to seismic forces.
- Settlement: differential settlement may cause serious cracks or even failures.
- Frost action: places stress on a building foundation. Footings must be placed at least 1’ below frost line for the soil not to freeze.
- Earth movement.
Soil drainage. Moisture can lead to reduction of a soil’s bearing capacity, leakage of water into a building, or disintegration of certain building materials.
- Water table. The level below which all soil is saturated with ground water. Foundations to be located well above it. Drain tile system and preformed waterstops to be used.
- Drainage. Involves directing water away from all structures by grading or shaping the contours of the site to provide a gradual transition from high to low elevations.
Soil modification. To improve its consistency, dependability and bearing capacity. Some methods include: drainage, deepening or increasing the bearing area of the footing, replacement of soft subsoil or organic fill with compacted granular material, etc.
Site preparation. Site must be cleared of undesirable materials. Location of building lines with the use of strings or wires stretched between batter boards.
Earthwork. Grading work, including excavation, rough grading and finish grading.
- Excavation. Removal of existing soil to permit construction of the foundation and substructure. Permanent cut slopes < 1.5h to 1v ; perm filled slopes < 2:1
- Grading: Alteration of a site’s contours. Rough grading (prior construction) and Finish grading (after construction)
- Backfill. Replaced earth around foundation or retaining wall after the concrete forms have been removed.
Foundations. Part of the structure that transmits the building’s loads to the soil. Footings. Part of the foundation which are widened to spread the load over a large area of soil.
- Shallow foundations. When soils close to the ground are of adequate strength.
- Column Footing
- Wall Footing
- Combined footing
- Cantilever footing
- Mat footing
- Raft foundation
- Boat footing
- Deep Foundations. When the upper soils have insufficient bearing capacity. Use of piles which may transfer the load to the soil by skin friction.
- Wood pile. Must be below permanent ground level.
- Precast concrete. Often prestressed.
- Cast-in-place concrete. Driven w/mandrel core, removed before pouring.
- Concrete-filled steel pipe. Driven w/sealed tip, then filled w/concrete.
- Structural steel. For dense earth and heavy loads – H section.
- Sheet piling. May be used as a water dam.
- Caissons and Cofferdams. Box-like structures (formed from timber, steel or concrete) at very wet or soft soils.
Temporary supports. Achieved by sheeting, bracing and underpinning.
- Sheeting. Temporary wall of wood, steel or precast concrete to retain soil around excavation. One type is the slurry wall.
- Bracing. To brace the sheeting to resist soil pressure. Includes rakers.
- Underpinning. To support existing foundations or walls to be extended downward. Involves needle beams or pipe cylinders w/hydraulic jacks.
Site improvements. Includes roads, parking, walks, fences, walls, lighting, etc.
- Asphalt paving. Derives from asphaltic petroleum. Applied 2-3in hot or cold.
- Asphaltic concrete.
- Cold laid asphalt
- Asphalt macadam
- Brick paving. (brick basket weave, brick herringbone, running bond brick)
- Stone cobbles.
- Granite setts.
- Flagstones.
Grade changing devices. Those that shape or retain the earth in order to modify the finish grade of a site. Masonry or retaining wall, concrete or stone battered wall, cribbing, stone riprap.
CONCRETE.
Definition. Mixture of fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed rock), Portland cement and water. Hardening of concrete is caused by hydration (chemical reaction between water and cement which creates heat).
Types of thin-shell and rigid frame concrete forms: Thin shell dome, multiple vaults, rigid frame, thin-shell barrel, corrugated thin-shell, rigid frame.
Composition of Concrete.
- Cement. Adhesive substance which is capable of uniting non-adhesive materials. Chemically active ingredient (matrix). Portland cement (lime, silica, iron oxide and alumina) is the most widely-used cement in existence.
- Type I Standard For general all-purpose use
- Type II Modified For slow setting and less heat
- Type III High early strength For quick setting and strength
- Type IV Low heat For very slow setting
- Type V Sulfate resisting For alkaline water and soils
- Aggregates. Chemically inert ingredients. Affect quality of the concrete, reduce shrinkage and serve as a filler. The max. size shouldn’t be greater than 1/3 the thickness of concrete slabs, or ¾” of the minimum space between reinforcing bars.
- Fine aggregate: sand ¼” dia. or less
- Coarse aggregate: gravel or crushed rock ¼” to 1 ½” dia.
- Admixtures. To alter certain characteristics or achieve special qualities.
- Accelerators Calcium chloride Speed up setting time
- Air-entraining Resins, fats, oils Resist freezing action
- Retarders Starches, sugars, acids Slow setting time
- Waterproofing Stearate compounds Decrease permeability
- Water-reducing Organic compounds Reduce water content
- Workability Powered silicas and lime Improve workability
Concrete mix design.
- Proportioning or the mix. Determining optimum combination. Expressed by volume, i.e. 1:3:5 mix (1part cement, three parts fine and 5 parts coarse.
- Water-cement Ratio. Expressed as the number of gallons of water per sack of cement. Major factor for concrete strength and durability. Max. strength: min. amount of water. Excess water may cause laitance (chalky surface)
- Strength. Depends on the water cement ratio. Strength is measured after 28 days of being placed.
Mixing. Concrete should be uniform in appearance and evenly distributed.
- Ready-mixed concrete. Mixed at central plant and transported to the site. To be used 1 ½ hr after water is added.
- Transit-mixed concrete. Mixed in truck mixer. Water is added after arrival.
Formwork. Forms are the molds into which concrete is placed and held in shape until hardened and develop sufficient strength to support its own weight. Made of lumber, plywood, metal, fiberboard, paper pulp, etc. Forms to be strong, stiff and tight. Oil used for coating forms before placing concrete. Expensive.
Reinforced Concrete. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. By embedding reinforcing steel we get reinforced concrete. Reinforcing bars – rebar are designated by numbers representing the bar diameter in 1/8”. Welded wire fabric – WWF is designated by the size and spacing of the longitudinal and transverse wires. Bars should be adequately concrete covered, galvanized or epoxy coated against corrosion. Bars may be pre-assembled with support devices as high chair, continuous high chair, slab bolster and beam bolster.
Lightweight concrete.
- Structural lightweight concrete. By adding lightweight aggregates made from expanded shale or clay. 90 to 115 instead of 150 pounds. Max. size coarse ¾”. Better insulation properties. More expensive.
- Insulating lightweight concrete. By adding aggregates of expanded materials like perlite or vermiculite. Weights 15 to 90 pounds. Used for thermal insulation in roof construction.
Placement of concrete. Concrete must be placed as close as possible to its final location evenly, continuously and in a manner that avoids segregation of aggregates. When placed on hardened concrete, this should be moistened and prepared. Vertical drops limited to 4’. Concrete to be compacted and consolidated by hand or vibrators to prevent reduction of its strength and watertightness due to air bubbles.
Testing.
- Slump test. Measures consistency & workability of the concrete mix. (cone mold)
- Cylinder test. Measures compressive strength. Cylinders are cast, laboratory-cured for 7 and 28 days and tested in a crushing machine.
- Other tests.
- Kelly ball test. Measures workability. A 30pd 6” dia. Ball is dropped.
- Impact hammer test. Measures strength. The rebound of a plunger.
- Tests for air content. Measure the volume of air contained in the mix.
Curing. Consists of maintaining the proper humidity and temperature for some period of time (3 to 14 days) after it is placed to assure satisfactory hydration of the cement. By supply of additional moisture to surface, using wet covering, covering to prevent evaporation or leaving moistened wood forms. Best for curing: 50 to 70 degrees.
Concrete joints.
- Construction joints. Hor. or ver. joints between two successive concrete pours. Keyed, stepped horizontal, roughened and keyed vertical joints. Use of rebar.
- Expansion joints. To allow free movement of adjacent parts due to expansion or contraction of the concrete. Waterproof, watertight and filled w/ an elastic filler. Required in buildings over 200’ long, at joints of building wings, and at addition of new buildings.
- Control joints. To allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur along the joint.
- Isolation joints. Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently.
Prestressed Concrete. Placed in compression. More efficient and economical (smaller members, greater distances and loads). Presstress is applied by pretensioning and posttensioning with the use of tendons (high-strength bars, single wires, and wire strands)
Precast Concrete. Advantage of mass production, better quality control of concrete, members can be cast and erected in all weather and faster construction.
- Floor & roof systems. Prestressed, precast planks used w/precast beams, joists, purlins.
- Tilt-up construction. Casting a wall panel in a horizontal position and tilt it vertically.
- Lift-slab construction. Casting slabs one upon another. Breaking agents required. Lifted. Almost all formwork is eliminated. Pipes, conduits, and ducts can be installed on grade.
- Tube-slab. Paper tube filler for mechanical to be integrated. Flat ceiling.
Concrete finishes.
- Walls and ceiling. Already set concrete. Rough, smooth, rubbed finish, sandblasted, w/ textured formwork, bush hammered, exposed aggregate, applied finish such as stucco, plaster, ceramic, or concrete paint.
- Floors. Still plastic and workable concrete. Wood float finish, steel troweled finish, applied texture as brooming, applied finish as pigmented, heavy duty, etc.
- Terrazo. Topping material over concrete slabs. Mixture of Portland cement, water, and colored marble granules.
MASONRY
Brick. Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried and fired in a kiln.
Molding methods.
- Soft mud process. Moist clay in rectangular molds.
- Stiff mud process. Mixture thru a die, extruding a ribbon cut by wires.
- Dry-press process. Most accurately-formed brick. Dry mixture pressed into gang molds.
Brick types.
- Building brick or common brick. Most widely used. 8”x 3 ¾”x 2 ¼”.
- Grade SW (Severe weathering)
- Grade MW (Moderate weathering)
- Grade NW (No weathering)
- Face brick. Exposed to view. Available in SW and MW grades.
- Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture.
- Grade FBS. Greater size variation and wide color range.
- Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size, color and texture.
- Backup brick. Inferior quality.
- Paving brick. Very hard and dense.
- Fire brick. Resistant to high temperatures.
- Sewer brick. Low absorbtion.
- Adobe brick. Made of natural clay and straw. Requires protection from rain.
- Nail-on brick. Used where solid masonry cannot be supported.
- Hollow brick. HBX, HBS and HBA. SW and MW grades.
- Modular brick. Brick courses plus the mortar joints produce dims multiple of 4”
Brick Nomenclature.
- Surfaces: face, side, cull, end and beds.
- Cut shapes: Half or bat, three quarter, quarter closer, king closer, queen closer, split or soap.
- Placement: Header, strecher, bull header (rowlock course), bull stretcher (shiner course), soldier and sailor.
Bricklaying. During temperatures between 40 and 90. Brick should be wetted prior to setting to minimize absorption of water from the mortar and for better bond. Should be set on a full bed of mortar, joints to be from ¼” to ½”. Reinforced brick masonry consists of 2 wythes of brick separated by a 2-4” space w/vertical and horizontal reinforcing bars.
Brick bonding. Patterns: Flemish bond, English bond, Cross bond, Common bond, Running bond, stacked bond.
Veneering. Exposed masonry attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing.
Efflorescence. White powdery deposit caused by soluble salts from water penetrations.
Expansion joints. Required in masonry structures over 200’ long or where wings occur. The sealant adheres to the two masonry surfaces to prevent air and water infiltration, while permitting movement top the wall face.
Concrete masonry. Manufactured by consolidating a stiff concrete mixture in steel molds, cured and quickly dried. Units include concrete brick, concrete block, concrete tile, and cast stone. Concrete blocks are modular 7 5/8” x 7 5/8” x 15 5/8”, light strong and fire resistant. Types: 2-corestretcher, 3-core stretcher, 2 or 3-core corner block, jamb block, window jamb block, lintel block.
Structural Clay Tile. Hollow, burned-clay masonry units with parallel cells. Types by function: backup tile and facing tile. By orientation: side-construction tile (cells horizontal) and end-construction tile (cells vertical). Architectural terra cotta is clay tile in various colors, textures and shapes. Ceramic veneer is terra cotta in large face dimensions, thin sections and glazed finishes.
Gypsum block. Or gypsum tile. From gypsum plaster., available in thicknesses 2”-6” and standard panels 12x30in. Interior non-load-bearing partitions and fireproofing protection. Set with gypsum mortar on top of water resistant material.
Glass block. Solid or hollow. Based on 4” module. Not structural, limited in area, height and length.
Stone.
- Igneous: granite.
- Sedimentary: limestone, sandstone, bluestone and brownstone.
- Metamorphic: marble, soapstone and slate.
Stone forms.
- Rough
- Rubble stone
- Dimension stone
- Flagstone
- Monumental stone
Stone masonry. Set with Portland cement mortar. Avoid moisture penetration.
- Rubble masonry. Natural state.
- Ashlar masonry. Shaped and smoothed.
- Coarsed. Horizontal joints.
- Uncoarsed or random. No horizontal joints.
- Bond stone. Perpendicular to the wall face for tie.
Mortar. To join the units to each other, or to their supporting members, while preventing moisture penetration. Composed of Portland cement, lime (workability), sand and water. Masonry cement or mortar cement may be used instead of Portland cement. Mortar should not be used three our of being mixed.
- Types M or S: for masonry that is load-bearing and/or exposed to the weather.
- Types N and O: lesser compressive strength required.
Mortar joints.
- Weathered
- Round rodded
- Flush
- V-shaped
- Beaded
- Troweled
- Raked
- Stripped
- Squeezed or extruded
Masonry accessories.
Strap anchors, dove tale anchors, cramp anchors, pin, threaded dowel, hangers, expansion joints and water stops.
WOOD
Terminology.
- Wood is the hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees.
- Lumber is wood that has been sawn into construction members.
- Timber is lumber that is 5in. or larger in its least dimension.
Classification.
- Softwood. Pine, fir and spruce. (evergreen). Used structurally for framing, sheathing, bracing, etc.
- Hardwood. Maple, oak and sycamore. (shed their leaves). Used for flooring, paneling, interior trim and furniture.
Characteristics. Available almost everywhere; lower in cost than concrete, masonry and steel structures; timber construction resist fire better than unprotected steel.
Strength of wood. Generally stronger in compression than tension. Much stronger when the load is applied parallel than perpendicular to the grain for both tension and compression. For shear, stronger perpendicular to the grain.
Seasoning of wood. Drying of wood. Detailing should allow for shrinkage or swelling.
- Air drying. Takes several months and leaves 10 to 20% moisture.
- Kiln drying. Takes a few days and leaves 10% moisture.
Cutting and Sawing lumber.
- Cut tangent to the annual rings: Plainsawed (hardwoods) and flat-grained or slash-grained (softwoods).
- Radially to the rings: Quatersawed (hardwoods) and edge-grained or vertical-grained (softwoods).
- Plainsawed. Grain is 0 to 45d to the wide face. Distinct grain pattern, shrinks and swells more in width, less in thickness and is less expensive.
- Quartersawed. Grain is 45 to 90d to the wide face. Even grain pattern, shrinks and swells more in thickness, less in width and is more costly.
Wood defects.
- Natural defects. Knot, peck, pitch pocket and shake.
- Manufacturing defects. Check, split, wane & the warp (bow, crook, cup and twist)
Grading Lumber.
- By use.
- Yard lumber (gral. const.)
- Factory and shop lumber (remfr products)
- By size.
- Boards. Graded for appearance. Used as siding, subflooring and trim. Types: Select and common.
- Dimension. Graded for strength. Used for load-bearing members. Types by size: Joists, planks, light framing and decking.
- Timbers. As dimensions. Types: beams, stringers, post & timbers.
- By manufacturer.
- Rough. Visible saw marks.
- Dressed or surface lumber is planed smooth to uniform sizes.
- Worked lumber is dressed and tongue-and-grooved or shaped to a pattern.
- Harwood grades. Based on the amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece. Standard grades are first, seconds, selects, sound wormy and numbers 1, 2, 3a and 3b.
- Lumber sizes. Specified in nominal dimensions, 2”x4” (1 ½”x3 ½”). Measured, computed and priced in board feet: 1”x12”x12”
Plywood. Manufactured wood panel consisting of several thin wood veneer sheets permanently bonded together with the grain of each ply perpendicular to the adjacent. Central ply: core, outer plies: face and back. Odd number of plies for flatness. 4’x8’x5/16” to 1 1/8”. Used as wall and roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment and formwork. Joint types: butt, vee, shiplap, batten, metal tee.
Classification. Interior (moisture resistant adhesive) and exterior (waterproof adhesive). Softwood (used in construction) and hardwood (more expensive, decorative applications, book, edge, and random matching). Graded from A to D per face and back.
Miscellaneous panels.
- Hardboard.
- Prefinished hardboard. Used for exterior siding, soffits, interior walls, ceilings, cabinetry, and acoustical treatment.
- Fiberboard. Acoustical tile, sheathing, and interior wall finishes.
- Flakeboard. Good insulation value and acoustical properties, but fragile.
- Particleboard. Core for plastic laminate or hardwood veneer.
- Beadboard. Insulating material.
- Plastic laminates or Formica. Counter tops, wall coverings and furniture.
Glued laminated lumber. Glulams are more weather resistant, consistent in size, appearance, and strength than solid timber. Appearance grades: Industrial, architectural and premium. Shapes: straight, single tapered-straight, double tapered-curve, double tapered-pitched, double-tapered-straight, curved and pitched. Joints: scarf & finger joint.
Wood preservation.
- Insects. In warm and humid climates. Termites eat wood form within. Measures include proper drainage, good ventilation and impervious concrete foundations. Use the preservatives, which penetrate the wood, are recommended instead of metal termite shields. Heavy treatment with creosote at marine borings.
- Decay. Caused by fungi in mild temperatures, moisture and air. Treated with preservatives, kept well ventilated and dry.
- Preservatives. Types: oil-borne solutions and water-borne solutions. Pressure applied for more effectiveness.
- Fire. Prevention by impregnating a chemical solution (ammonium phosphate) or by surface treatment (intumescent paint).
Wood Framing. Trusses, rigid frames, built-up girders, and glued laminated beams.
- Types of laminated wood frames and arches: two-hinged arch, three-hinged frame and three-hinged arch.
- Types of trussed rafter types: pitched, flat, scissors and sawtooth.
- Types of wood wall framing: platform framing (one story studs) and balloon framing (full height studs, two stories)
Wood Joining. Types by location: exterior and interior. Types by connection: lap, shoulder, rabbet, miter, shoulder miter, quirk miter, t&g miter, butt, t&g, shiplap, spline, fillet, v-joint, batten, squared splice, splice, scarf, mortise & tenon, dado, dovetail, t&g, open joint, metal joint, metal u insert, open joint w/filler (p.19). Types of nails: common, box and finish nails.
Finish woodwork.
- Millwork. Shop-fabricated items that need to be protected by a primer or sealer.
- Wood trim. To cover joints. Shapes: ¼” round, ½” round, cove, bead, crown, casing and base.
- Wood siding and paneling. Better grades of wood used. Patterns: channel, board & batt, t&g, shiplap, bevel, rabbeted bevel, vee joint t&g and drop t&g.
METALS
Characteristics: Luster, opaqueness, hardness, ability to conduct heat and electricity. Alloys: combination of pure metals (lead, copper, iron) with controlled quantities of other substances. Classified as ferrous (contain a lot of iron: stainless steel, galvanized iron) and non-ferrous (aluminum, copper and zinc).
Deterioration. Galvanic action or electrolysis occurs when different metals are in contact and depends on the amount of moisture present. List of metal based on galvanic activity:
- Aluminum
- Zinc
- Iron and steel
- Stainless steel
- Tin
- Lead
- Brass
- Copper
- Bronze
- Gold
Forming metal. Process by which extracted metal is transformed into a useful product that has a finished shape.
- Cast: By pouring molten metal into a mold.
- Wrought: By forcibly shaping solid metal to a required form.
Ferrous metals.
- Iron. Most abundant metal. Wrought iron: used for ornamental work, grilles, pipes, and outdoor furniture. Cast iron: pipes, plumbing fixtures, ornamental work, hardware and special castings.
- Steel. Methods of steel making: open hearth process, basic oxygen process and electric furnace process. The most widely used structural metal in building construction. Used for structural framing, concrete reinforcing bars, lathing, conduit, pipes, fixtures, miscellaneous and ornamental work, and connectors (nails, pins and bolts)
- Structural steel.
- Alloy steel.
- Weathering steel.
- Heat-treated steel.
- Case-hardened steel.
Non-ferrous metals.
- Aluminum. Light weight, good thermal and electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion. Used for framing of lightweight structures, railings, grills, siding, curtain walls, windows, doors, flashing, insulation, roofing, screening, and hardware.
- Copper. Resistant to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity. Used for electrical work, water distribution lines, roofing and flashing, and for screening mesh.
- Other metals.
- Brass. Resists corrosion. Precise casting, finish hardware and plumbing, heating and ac components and fittings.
- Bronzes. Similar to brass.
- Lead. Toxic, heavy, soft and weak. Corrosion resistant and workable. Used for foundations and machinery, rough hardware item, roofing and flashing.
- Zinc. Roof coverings, flashings and protective coatings for steel.
- Monel. Roofing, flashing, counter tops, sinks.
Metal finishes.
- Anodizing. Metal finish applied to aluminum.
- Galvanizing. Most popular method. Zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bath of molten zinc.
The use of metals in construction.
- Structural
- Hollow metalwork
- Miscellaneous metalwork
- Ornamental metalwork
- Flashing
- Miscellaneous
Structural steel construction. Consists of the fabrication and erection of hot-rolled members which are manufactured from medium carbon steel. Rolled steel section: beam & column w-shape, beam s-shape, channel c-shape, L-shape, tee wt-shape, t st-shape, structural tubing, bars and plates. Built-up steel sections (p.11)
Cable and tent structures. (tended cable structures) Used to cover very large areas with thin sheet material.
Space frames and domes. Truss type structural systems which span in tow directions.
Lightweight metal framing. Light gauge steel members are used. It is lightweight, incombustible, and impervious to decay, warpage, shrinkage and termites.
Open web joists or bar joists. Shop fabricated, standard lightweight trusses.
Metal decking. Ribbed, corrugated, cellular or flat ribbed.
Miscellaneous and ornamental metal. Ferrous metal used for metal stairs, railings, fire escapes, gratings, and fences. Shop drawings required. Non-ferrous metal and stainless steel are used for decorative grills, and louvers, mesh and wire cloth, metal treillage and flagpoles.
MOISTURE AND THERMAL PROTECTION
Ground water control.
- Surface water.
- Ground water. Water contained in the voids and crevices under the earth’s surface which flows slowly through aquifer (permeable material). Ground water table is the level below which the earth is saturated with water. Terms in order of watertightness:
- Permeable
- Water-resistant
- Water-repellent
- Waterproof
Damproofing. Materials and methods which prevent moisture from penetrating a building at or bellow grade. Asphalt base coatings, cement plaster and liquid silicones are used. Draining surface water from a building, installing a polyethylene film vapor seal and footing drains.
Waterproofing. Materials and methods which prevent water under hydrostatic pressure from penetrating those parts of a building which are in direct contact with the earth.
- Membrane waterproofing consists of several layers of asphalt-saturated felt hot mopped together with tar or asphalt pitch.
- Waterstops create waterproof construction joints in walls and floors below grade.
Precipitation control. Roofing describes the materials and methods used to weatherproof the exterior top surface of a structure. Climate affects its durability. Roofing needs to be fire resistant. Type of roof and slope of roof are related factors:
- Bituminous and soldered or welded metals: 0:12 to 3:12
- Asphalt roll roofing: 1:12 to 3.5:12
- Asphalt strip shingles: 3:12 to 4:12
- All types of shingles & metals: 4:12 to 8:12
- Tile & slate: 5:12 to 8:12
A square is the unit of measure used to express roof surface area and its equal to square feet. Roof types: shed, gable, intersecting gables, hip, mansard, gambrel, flat w/parapets and sawtooth.
Roofing materials.
- Asphalt. Built-up (plies), shingles and roll
- Wood. Shingles and shakes
- Metal. Sheet, corrugated and strip
- Clay, cement and slate. Tiles. Types: Greek, roman, Spanish, mission, shingle English.
- Glass and plastic. Sheets. (wire-reinforced glass and fiberglass-reinforced acrylic sheets are commonly used)
- Plastic. Liquid coatings.
Condensation control. Water vapor moves from high to low pressure areas, usually from inside to outside. Vapor barriers for prevention, made from aluminum foil, various types of sheet plastic or asphalt-saturated felt. Vapor barriers are installed on the warm side.
Thermal control. Methods: caulking and weather-stripping (cracks and openings), tinted, reflective or insulating glass (windows) and thermal insulation (wall and roof assemblies). Thermal insulation materials have thermal resistance ‘R’. Thermal conductivity ‘k’, reciprocal of ‘R’.
- Loose fill Glass, mineral wool 4” thick = 3.90 R value
- Batt or blanket Glass, mineral wool 3 ½” thick = 11.00 R value
- Board or sheet Cork, glass or fibers 1” thick = 2.75 R value
- Reflective Aluminum 1” air space = 1.39 R value
- Foam Plastics, spray type 1” panel = 6.00 R value
Flashing. Used to provide seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to the weather, intersection of different materials and expansion or contraction joints. Concealed or exposed.
Expansion joints. To anticipate the amount of thermal movement and to provide a complete separation to allow it, while maintaining the weathertightness and structural integrity of structure. Provided every 125’ in masonry walls, 200’ in steel, concrete structures and roofs. They are made waterproof with waterstops, elastic joint sealants, metal flashing or caulking.
DOORS, WINDOWS AND GLASS
Doors. Frames: head and jambs; thresholds, sills or saddles; stop; hinge and trim.
- By location: interior and entrance doors
- By function: fire door and acoustical door
- By method of operation: swinging, revolving, overhead, folding and sliding door
- By physical type: panel, louvered, flush, shutter, French, sash, jalousie, glass, Dutch, screen, special-purpose. And/or by material: wood (hollow core, solid core, panel), steel, aluminum and glass.
- Wood. Most popular. Waterproof adhesives exterior and water-resistant adhesives in the interiors.
- Flush. Solid core door or hollow core door.
- Panel. Panels may be wood, plywood, glass or fixed wood louvers. Sections held in place by wood stiles and rails.
- Special-purpose. Fire, sound or radiation.
- Steel. 14 to 20 cold rolled steel. Interiors and exteriors.
- Hollow metal. Steel frame cover w/ sheet metal. (flush or paneled). Rigid, permanent, meet any fire rating.
- Metal clad or kalamein. Solid wood core covered w/ sheet metal.
- Aluminum. Used in curtain wall and store front. Rarely used for fire doors.
- Metal security. Metal mesh or grills. Used for security.
- Fire door. Rated and labeled from class A to E. The entire assembly to be fire rated. Doors to be self hatching and have automatic closing devices.
- A 3hrs Fire walls or fire areas No glazing
- B 1 ½ hrs Vertical enclosures 100sq.in. (4” min)
- C ¾ hr Corridors & partitions 1296sq.in. (54” max)
- D 1 ½ hrs Exterior walls, severe No glazing
- E ¾ hr Exterior walls, moderate 720sq.in (54” max)
- Glass. ½ to ¾ in thick tempered glass.
- By hand convention: Right hand, left hand, left hand reverse and right hand reverse. (standing outside)
Door hardware. Hinges, closers, locking devices, panic hardware and weather-stripping. Knobs: 38” from finish floor, panic bolts: 42” from finish floor.
- Hinges. Exposed, concealed or invisible. 8” from the head, 10” from the floor. Types: mortised, ball bearing, t-strap, cabinet pivot hinge, olive knuckled and invisible. Full mortise, half mortise, half surface, full surface.
- Closers. Parallel arm type and bracket-mounted type. Closing quickly & quietly.
- Locking devices. Beveled: latch or rectangular: dead bolt. When bolt is used w/ a latch: lock. Lockset types: cylindrical, unit, rim and mortise locks.
- Panic hardware. Push bars to extend ¾ of the door width.
- Operating devices. Knobs, level handles, pulls, push plates, kick plates, escutcheons, etc. Tactile finish on doors leading to hazardous areas.
- Weather-stripping. To make exterior openings weathertight. Interlocking or friction devices.
Windows.
- Basic types: residential, commercial, industrial and monumental.
- Elements: head, sill, jamb, top rail, bottom rail, stile, muntin, frame, panes & sash.
- Types: casement, sliding, double hung, hopper, awning, austral, pivoted, folding, jalousie, fixed.
- Wood. +/- Inexpensive, durable and readily available.
- Aluminum. Possible for complex configurations (extruded), string, light, durable.
- Steel. Hot-rolled solid sections or cold-rolled strip steel.
- Stainless steel. Corrosion-resistant. 16-ga, 18-ga, 20-ga or 22-ga.
- Replaceable. To supersede or to be applied over an existing window. (renovation work). Energy savings(decrease heat loss and gain)
- Screens. Wire mesh supported by rigid frames to exclude insects.
Door and window systems. Aluminum is the most common used material.
- Storefront. Metal framework sections and glass panels designed as a unit.
- Curtain walls. Support no weight other than their own. Metal framework and glass, plastic, metal or other surfacing panels. Must be weatherproof, thermal and sound control, safe and secure.
- Skylights. Types: Square or rectangular, pyramid, circular domes, flat or low profile, vent, continuous vault, and continuous ridge. Frames: aluminum, galvanized steel or copper. Glazed: glass block, wire glass, plastic panels. Must be weathertight, safe have condensation drains.
Glass. Solid, super-cooled, ceramic material made form sand, soda and lime. Stronger in compression than tension.
- Foamed or cellular glass. Used as rigid thermal insulation, spun glass fibers are used for acoustical and thermal insulation and textile manufacturing.
- Window glass. Common type for small windows. AA, A and B (degree of distortion). SS 3/32” thick and DS 1/8” thick (strength). Up to 35 square feet.
- Heavy sheet glass. = window but available from 3/16” to 7/32” and larger areas.
- Plate glass. Finest for windows but expensive. 1/8” to 1 ¼” thick.
- Patterned glass. Obscure vision & reduce light transmission. Available tempered.
- Tempered glass. Heat treated for increased resistance to impact stress. Stronger than plate glass. May not be modified after manufactured.
- Insulating glass. (multi-glazing) Two or more sheets of glass separated by air space to provide thermal insulation, acoustical control and an absence of condensation. May not be altered after manufactured.
- Heat absorbing or actinic glass. Tinted to absorb solar radiation and transmits less solar heat and glare into a building.
- Reflective glass. Reflects heat and glare, transmits less heat & glare into a blng.
- Laminated glass. Plastic sheet between two glass layers. When glass brakes, plastic holds it. Types: safety (automobile and skylights) and bulletproof glass (banks and prisons)
- Wired glass. High resistance to impact and remains intact after breakage. Good for fire resistance and skylights.
- Butt joint glazing. No vertical mullions but a clear silicone sealant forms the joint.
Plastics. Used to replace glass. Acrylics, polyesters and polystyrenes are used. Fire resistant or slow-burning. It is not as hard as glass and not as durable under weather conditions. Expands easily. More expansive than glass, but more resistant to fire and breakage.
Glazing. Process of placing glass in windows and making weathertight joint between the glass and its frame using glazing compounds (made from rubber, vinyl, etc.). Clearance must be allowed between glass and frame to be surrounded by a watertight seal of glazing compound and allow for thermal expansion or contraction.
FINISH WORK
Stone Veneer. Limestone, granite, sandstone and marble veneer slabs of 1” thick. Rough, slightly textured, smooth, or polished. Attached to back-up material with metal anchors and ties and 1 ½ ” thick bed. Durable, permanent but relatively expensive.
Plaster work. Composed of Portland cement (exterior plaster or stucco) or gypsum and lime (interior plaster); aggregate (sand, vermiculite, perlite) and water. Plaster is applied in two or three coats over a base of masonry, metal lath or lathing board.
Types:
- Portland cement or stucco (exterior)
- Gypsum plaster (interior)
- Acoustic plaster. Acoustics for walls and ceilings.
- Bonding plaster. Interior concrete walls and ceilings.
- Fire-resistant plaster. Resistance for steel or other materials.
- Keene’s cement plaster. Contains lime putty for hard, water-resistant finish.
- Lightweight plaster. Contains vermiculite or perlite aggregates for fire resistance.
- Veneer plaster. Dense plaster thin coat over gypsum lath. Painted after 24hrs.
Bases:
- Concrete or masonry surfaces must be rough and porous for good bonding.
- Metal lath. Sheet metal or wire fabric into which a based coat of plaster is keyed. Types; flat expanded (diamond mesh), rib lath (flat rib or high rib) and woven wire mesh or lath.
- Lathing board. (plasterboard, gypsum lath or gyplath) composed of gypsum and water, dried and sandwiched between tow porous sheets of paper. 16”x48”, 3/8” or ½” thick. Solid sheets with reflective aluminum in one side for vapor and thermal control and Type X for fire-resistive rating.
Before plaster applied, trim shapes are set: square end casing bead, quarter round casing bead, corner bead, bullnose corner bead, window stool, control joint base, base screed. Plaster should be 5/8” over metal lath, ½” over gypsum lath. Exterior ¾” to 7/8”. Plaster is applied in three coats:
- Scratch 2 sand – 1 plaster ¼” thick
- Brown 3 sand – 1 plaster ¼” thick
- Finish 1 ½” sand – 1 plaster 1/8” thick
Gypsum Board (sheetrock or drywall). Prefabricated form of plaster. Faster and cleaner installation. 4’ widths and from 6 to 12’ in length, ¼” to 5/8” thick. Directly applied to wood or metal framework, or to concrete or masonry walls. Edges and joints: square, beveled, round, tapered, tongue and groove.
- Regular board. Walls and ceilings.
- Backing board. Backing for other materials as acoustical tile
- Insulating bd. Aluminum foil laminated for reflective insulation & vapor barrier.
- Type X board. Fire-resistive rating.
- Moisture-resistant board. Backing in moisture areas.
- Decorative board. Finished with decorative paper or vinyl.
Ceramic Tile Work. Flat units composed of clay or clay mixtures. Tile shapes: bullnose, cove base, double bullnose, bead, flat tile, cove, curb or cap. Set in cement mortar 1” thick (Portland cement, water and sand) and grouted and pointed.
Types by vitrification:
- Non-vitreous tile. Absorbs from 7% to 15% moisture.
- Semi-vitreous tile. Absorbs between 3% to 7% moisture.
- Vitreous tile. Absorbs less than 3% moisture. No dirt penetration.
- Impervious tile. Repels almost all moisture and dirt.
Types by finish:
- Glazed interior tile. Non-vitreous for interior applications.
- Glazed weatherproof tile. Semi-vitreous or vitreous for moderate exterior applic.
- Ceramic mosaic tile. Unglazed, semi-vitreous. Interior and exterior applications.
- Quarry tile. Unglazed, impervious. Weatherproof, durable, for heavy duty wear.
- Inlaid, faience, and handmade tiles.
Plastics. Plastic sidings, plastic counter tops, plastic bath tubs, shower stalls fabricated from acrylics or fiberglass.
Flooring.
- Wood flooring. Hardwood and softwood used. Patterns: Plank flooring, strip herringbone, block basketweave, English parquet, French parquet, Georgian parquet.
- Strip flooring. Tongue and grooved side and ends. Applied over a wood subfloor on wood sleepers, or directly to a concrete slab using waterproof adhesives. Fastened by blind nails.
- Plank flooring. Laid in random widths with a V-groove. Screwed to the subfloor due to warpage.
- Thin block flooring. Squared or t&grooved edges. Fastened by nailing or ashesives.
- Solid block flooring. Treated with creosote against moisture and decay. Set in a coating of bituminous material. Heavy duty and durable.
- Mortar-set flooring. Includes any masonry material set and utilized as finish floor surface. Brick, slate and stone (limestone, sandstone, granite and marble) flooring
- Poured-in-place flooring. Concrete, terrazzo, magnesite, elastomeric, rubberized plastic and paint type floors.
- Resilient flooring. Available in tiles, durable, nonabsorbent, comfortable and easily maintained. Laid over smooth wood or concrete subfloors with mastic cements. Vinyl, asphalt, linoleum, rubber, cork.
- Carpeting. Set directly on concrete slab or plywood subfloor.
- By material: acrylic fibers, nylon, polyester, wool.
- By method of manufacture: tufting, weaving, needle punching
- By texture: low pile, high pile.
Acoustical work
- Acoustical tiles. From perforated, textured or pattern wood, mineral or glass fibers. Lightweight and fragil. Square, beveled, rabbeted, t&g edges
- Acoustical panels. Perforated steel, aluminum, fiberboard or hardboard backed with a sound-absorbing batt or blanket.
- Wet material. Acoustical plaster and mineral fiber products. Suited for irregular surfaces, quickly installed and effective.
- Vibration control. Concrete, solid concrete blocks or lead used to control vibration.
Painting.
Components:
- Paint. Protective coat that combines a pigment and a vehicle.
- Pigments. Finely ground solids held in suspension by a vehicle. Color, hiding power and opacity.
- Vehicles. The liquid portion of a paint mixture, binder that forms the paint film, driers to speed up formation of the film, and solvents and thinners which control consistency and aid in drying.
- Types: By location, by material where applied, by their finish and by their unique characteristics.
Pigmented coatings. White pigments to which color is added and a vehicle.
- Enamels. Pigmented paints that used varnish as the vehicle. Resistant to weathering.
- Baked enamels. Factory applied between 200 to 300 degrees, durable, washable, resistant to wild chemicals.
Clear coatings. Used to protect surfaces without obscuring them.
- Varnish. Used as a clear coating and as a vehicle for pigmented paints.
- Lacquer. Tough and thin but not as durable as varnish
- Shellac. Used as a clear finish for wood work, seal knots, and pitch stains.
- Sealers. Used to prepare a surface for its final finish.
- Stains. Not strictly a clear coating, it won’t obscure the natural grain of wood.
Bituminous Coatings. Made of coal tar & asphalt.
- Coal tar pitch. Used to protect metal and applied by dipping. Waterproofing agents.
- Asphalt. Used for damproofing and waterproofing work.
Miscellaneous coatings
- Cement mortar. Used for damproofing masonry surfaces and for steel protection.
- Fire-resistant and intumescent paints. Unable to support combustion. Stop heat transfer.
- Rust-preventive paint. Rust inhibitive qualities, low permeability to corrosive and low absorption.
- Antibacterial and insecticidal paints.
- Organic coatings. Plastics, rubber & other synthetics for durability and resistance to weather/wear
- Epoxy coatings. Resistant to chemicals, moisture and stains.
Paint Application. Surfaces must be clean, dry and free of all corrosion, grease or defects. Paints to be applied between 55 and 85 degrees F.
VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION
Stairs. 36” to 44” wide. Rise max 7” and tread min 11”
- Riser + tread = 17 to 17.5 in.
- Riser x tread = 70 to 75 sq.in.
- 2 risers + tread = 24 to 25 in.
Landings should be as long as the stair width, vertical distance between landing should not exceed 12’ and headroom clearance shouldn’t be less than 6’-8”.
- Fire stairs. For emergency exit. Enclosed w/fire resistive walls and equipped with complete fire assemblies.
- Monumental stairs. Handrails required if width is over 88”. Rarely permitted.
- Residential stairs. Could be narrower. Winders and spiral stairs are acceptable.
Ramps. Wide as corridors leading to them. Handicapped are 36” wide min, max 30” rise & landings must be at least 5’ long. Handrail required if ramp > 6’long or rise > 6”
- 1:20 (5%) or less, not considered a ramp
- 1:15 (6.7%) or more, required handrails
- 1:12 (8.3%) max. slope permitted for handicapped
- 1:8 (12.5%) max. slope permitted by building code
Ladders. Used to access roofs or in service areas. Min. of 18” wide, rungs spaces 12” and installed 6” from the wall.
Elevators.
- Hydraulic elevators. Pushed up by a rod. Platform sits over a plunger that extends as far into the ground as it rises. Used for low-rise buildings, five stories max. with speeds between 25 and 150 fpm (feet per minute). Cost leas than electric. They do not require overhead machinery or penthouse.
- Electric elevators. Pulled up by cables. Used in 50-foot-buildings or higher, 1800 fpm. Traction transmits lifting power to cables that run over grooves in the machine-driven sheave. The traction machine, which moves the elevator, could be geared (low-speed applications) or gearless (high speed applications).
- Roping. Traction machines are classified as single-wrap (cables pas only once over the sheave) or double-wrap (for additional traction, high speed)
- Safety features. Brake, mounted on the motor shaft, is self applying and will stop at power failure. The governor measures the speed by actuating the safety rail clamp. Car bumpers located at the bottom of the shaft stop car. Safety edges consist of a lip that if encounters a person, package, etc, door will reopen and prevent the elevator from moving. Electric eye prevents door from pinching passengers or objects. Interlocks and leveling devices prevent the door to open before or after the elevator is leveled.
- Capacity and speed. 1.6 x the rise in feet + 350 = rated elevator speed.
- Operating systems.
- Single automated operation. Car responds to the first button pressed.
- Collective operating systems. Calls may be stored.
- Selective-collective systems. Answers calls in the direction of travel.
- Fully automated systems. Tall office buildings, service can be adjusted for varying traffic conditions.
- Architectural considerations. Location (alcove off the main corridor), size and number of elevators, which depend on number of floors, population, function, volume of traffic, capacity and speed of elevator. Time intervals between elevators should be 20 to 30 seconds. Doors should be 3’-6” wide to allow two people in at the same time (single speed side opening, two-speed side opening, single speed center opening and two speed center opening).
Freight elevators. Used to transport equipment, material and goods rather than passengers. Hydraulic elevators are appropriate for low-rise buildings, and electric elevators are more economical if lift exceeds 50 feet. Speeds from 75 to 200 fpm.
- Class A. General freight
- Class B. Motor Vehicle Garage Elevator.
- Class C. industrial truck loading.
Service elevators. Modified passenger elevator for oversize loads.
Sidewalk elevators. Rise to an upper level by opening hatch on ground floor.
Dumbwaiters. Small elevators 9 sq. ft. x 4’ high for materials and supplies.
Escalators. Move large number of people from floor to floor quickly, safely and a low cost. Made up of custom-built steel trusses and endless belt and synchronized handrail. Standard widths 32 and 48 in. Travel 120fpm.
Moving ramps. Continuous tread instead of steps. Inclined 15 degrees, and when flat are called moving sidewalks. 40” wide. 140 to 180 fpm.
