Thrift institutions and finance companies

CHAPTER 17

THRIFT INSTITUTIONS AND FINANCE COMPANIES

 

CHAPTER OVERVIEW AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• This chapter initially surveys three other depository institutions besides commercial banks: savings banks, savings associations (“S&Ls”), and credit unions. These institutions represent special variations on the basic business of commercial banking: taking deposits and making loans. They are regulated in essentially the same way and for essentially the same purposes as commercial banks, and become less distinct from banks as the financial system evolves.

 

• The rest of the chapter surveys finance companies, important credit providers for businesses and consumers. Because they do not take deposits or transmit monetary policy, finance companies are differently regulated than depository institutions and significantly more varied in activities, size, and structure.

CAREER PLANNING NOTE: DEVELOP COMPUTER PROFICIENCY

In addition to taking a few more accounting courses, finance majors are finding that specific software competencies can be important when seeking an entry-level position. Financial institutions in particular are likely to ask about modeling ability, and not the kind displayed in fashion shows. Investment bankers, commercial bankers, securities analysts, and regulators spend more and more of their time building and manipulating complex spreadsheet models for valuation, interest rate risk, or portfolio diversification. While many finance courses and textbooks now assume minimum proficiency in Excel, you should consider developing your spreadsheet or enterprise software competencies on your own or in other courses.  Practice with assignments and cases, or find a part-time job involving spreadsheeting. Most spreadsheet programs are similar; you can easily "switch" to that of your future employer. Learn to use graphics in your presentations, and practice explaining complex financial concepts with a variety of audiences in mind, trained and untrained in finance.

 

READING THE WALL STREET JOURNAL: THE WEEKEND JOURNAL

The “Weekend Journal” is a supplemental section that comes with the Journal each Friday. It covers culture, entertainment, sports, and other “extracurricular” subjects. Not a vital part of your business reading, but useful nevertheless. It provides a glimpse at where the “movers and shakers” go when they’re away from the office, what they do when they get there, and what they might be talking about on the way.

 

TOPIC OUTLINE AND KEY TERMS

I.           Historical Development of Savings Institutions

            A.        Commercial banks traditionally served business and commerce; “Thrifts” met needs of:
1.         small savers.
2.         home buyers.
3.         seekers of small non-business loans.

B.        First “Savings Banks” established in 1816.
1.         Mutually owned by depositors but managers and trustees exercised control.
2.         Traditionally found in northeastern U.S.
3.         Savings accounts, no transaction accounts.
3.         Could originally invest in almost anything—loans, stocks, bonds, etc.
4.         Ultimately came to emphasize home loans (mortgages).
5.         Stock ownership has mostly overtaken mutual ownership.

C.        First S&L founded in 1831 to pool savers' funds to build homes for members.
1.         Originally they were called “building societies.”
a.         Formed by groups of people who pooled their savings so that each could eventually build a home.
b.         As mortgages were repaid and more funds were deposited, the society could finance more homes.
2.         Originally they were mutually owned (owned by their depositors).
3.         “Stock associations” became an alternative, and eventually the prevalent form.
4.         Government ultimately granted thrifts large tax incentives to concentrate in   mortgage loans (used the industry to promote home ownership).
5.         Today S&Ls are technically called “savings associations”

            D.        The Thrift Crisis of the 1980s
1.         The classic model of thrift management involved a negative maturity GAP:
a.         Short-to-medium term fixed-rate savings deposits financing
b.         Medium-to-long-term fixed-rate mortgages.
2.         Thus the sharp interest rate increases of the early 1980s decimated the industry.
3.         The problem was compounded by unsound lending practices and other forms of mismanagement.

II.        Regulation of Savings Institutions

            A.        Savings bank regulators.
1.         Federal regulator: Office of Thrift Supervision (an “OCC for Thrifts”).
2.         Insurer: FDIC-SAIF (the savings insurance fund subsidiary of the FDIC).
3.         State regulator: Whatever state agency may have chartered a given institution.

            B.        Savings association (S&L) regulators.
1.         Federal regulator: OTS.
2.         Insurer: FDIC-either subsidiary, depending on prior election.
3.         State regulator: Whatever state agency may have chartered a given institution.

C.        Federal Home Loan Banks.
1.         12 regional Federal Home Loan Banks empowered to borrow in national capital   markets and make loans, called advances, to savings associations in their regions.
2.         Regulatory powers have been mostly transferred to OTS.
3.         Banks still in place but Federal Home Loan Bank Board was abolished in 1989.

III.      Operations of Savings Institutions

            A.        Assets
1.         Residential mortgages still main asset because of tax break.
2.         Other loan types more represented now than in past because of deregulation.
3.         Liquidity management comparable to commercial banks.
4.         “OREO”—Other Real Estate Owned—acquired in foreclosures
B.        Liabilities
1.         Deposits are key, but deposit types are much more varied today.
2.         Advances from FHLB are most important nondeposit source of funds.
3.         Fed funds present but less important as either source or use compared to banks.

            C.        Capital Accounts, Standards and Vocabulary analogous to banks—
1.         Tier 1/ Tier 2; Risk-weighting of assets; Minimum ratios
2.         Capital levels have risen sharply since 1989.

            D.        Income, Expenses, and Performance
1.         Structure of income statement comparable to banks—
a.         Gross Interest Income; Gross Interest Expense
b.         Net Interest Margin about 3%.
c.         Provision for loan losses reflects sounder lending practices
2.         Industry ROAA averages around 1.2%; ROAE around 13%.

 

IV.       Credit Unions

            A.        Crucial Differences from Other Depository Institutions.
1.         Always and strictly mutually owned; organized like clubs.
2.         Common-bond membership/exemption from antitrust constraints.
a.         Most common bonds are occupational.
b.         Others are associational/fraternal or residential.
3.         Not-for-profit and therefore tax-exempt.
4.         Expected to concentrate on smaller consumer loans.

            B.        Regulation of Credit Unions.
1.         Entirely state-regulated before 1934.
2.         Main federal regulator today: NCUA (National Credit Union Administration)
a.         Charters most U.S. credit unions today.
b.         Examines credit unions according to the CAMELS system
c.         Administers NCUSIF—National Credit Union Share Insurance Fund
(1)       Insures deposits at nearly all credit unions
(2)       Same coverage and process as FDIC    
d.         Administers CLF—Central Liquidity Facility
(1)       Lender of last resort to credit unions
(2)       Seldom used

            C.        Credit Union Operations and Performance
1.         Relatively simple balance sheets—
a.         Loans to members
b.         Investment securities
c.         Deposits (few other borrowings)
d.         Equity
2.         Relatively low loss or failure rates—high capital & liquidity, plus—
a.         members with stable incomes
(teachers, government employees, military personnel, etc.)
b.         regular use of payroll deductions
c.         “clublike” atmosphere; members realize their loan performance will affect peers’ welfare so they strive hard to pay as agreed
d.         widespread use of credit life insurance

            D.        Other Unique Features of the Credit Union Industry
1.         Corporate central credit unions—correspondent banking for credit unions.
a.         “Wholesale” credit unions of which retail credit unions are themselves
members—the “credit unions of credit unions”
b.         Sell investment securities; lend liquidity.
c.         Hold reserves of credit unions.
d.         Help with check clearing.
2.         Trade Associations/Lobbying Groups
a.         CUNA—Credit Union National Association
(1)       Major trade association of all U.S. credit unions
(2)       Very influential in government
(3)       Many services to credit unions—
i.          mortgage banking
ii.         investments
iii.        deposit and credit insurance
iv.        data processing
v.         lobbying
b.         NAFCU—National Federal Credit Union Association
(1)       Association of federally chartered credit unions
(2)       Also quite influential politically

V.        Finance Companies

            A.        Nature, structure, and purposes of Finance Companies: Highly diverse.
1.         May be public corporations, private corporations, partnerships, or subsidiaries.
2.         May be independent or part of larger enterprise.
a.         May be part of larger financial enterprise (e.g. financial holding company)
b.         May be “captive finance subsidiary” of larger nonfinancial enterprise
(e.g. GE Capital, GMAC, etc.)
3.         May be widely diversified in lending, or emphasize particular kinds of credit—
a.         Consumer credit
b.         Business credit
c.         Factoring
d.         Leasing
e.         Sales Fianance

            B.        Assets of the Finance Company Industry
1.         Consumer Receivables (from households usually representing more credit risk than depository institutions will take).
a.         Personal Loans
b.         Automobile Financing
c.         Mobile Home Financing
d.         Revolving and Installment Credit
e.         Other consumer (appliances, furniture, etc.)
2.         Second Mortgage Real Estate Loans
3.         Business Credit
a.         Wholesale paper/floor plan financing (financing dealer inventories).
b.         Retail paper (financing customer purchases from dealer)
c.         Lease paper (all kinds of equipment and vehicles)
d.         Other business credit
(1)       Asset-based lending (e.g. accounts receivable)
(2)       Factoring

            C.        Securitization of Finance Company Receivables
1.         Growing trend, especially for leases and larger, longer-term credit
2.         Essentially same rationale as in banking (see Chapter 13).

            D.        Sources of Funds to Finance Companies
1.         Equity capital, though unregulated, is important.
a.         Finance companies borrow practically all their loanable funds—
(1)       in the commercial paper market
(2)       or from other lending institutions
(3)       or in the capital markets
b.         Credit rating depends on adequate equity capital.
2.         Short-term debt—
a.         Commercial Paper
b.         Borrowings from other lending institutions
c.         Transfer credit from parent companies
3.         Long-term debt—various debt securities issued to investing public         

E.        Regulation of Finance Companies Emphasizes Consumer Protection.
1.         Safety and soundness not a concern—no deposit insurance, no monetary policy.
2.         Limited bargaining power and sophistication of consumers a big concern.
a.         Interest rate ceilings (or “usury limits”) on consumer debt.
(1)       Vary from state to state.
(2)       Often vary by size, maturity, and type of loan.
b.         Debt collection practices.
(1)       Limitations on late fees, penalties, garnishment.
(2)       Limitations on times and places of contact.
(3)       Requirement of certain legal processes.
c.         Branching, chartering, & merger restrictions.
(1)       No federal regulations.
(2)       States vary.
d.         Truth-in-Lending applies as much to Finance Companies as to banks.
e.         Bankruptcy laws.
(1)       Penalize unsecured creditors.
(2)       Motivated finance companies to look into more secured lending.

 

COMPLETION QUESTIONS

 1.        “Thrifts” include two traditional types of firms: ________ and ________.

 2.        The traditional S&L had (short/long) maturing assets, (short/long) maturing deposits, and incurred             (losses/gains) when interest rates increased.

 3.        Two important pieces of deregulation legislation passed in 1980 and 1982 were _____ and _____.

 4.        The primary assets and liabilities of S&Ls have been ________ and ________.

 5.        As interest rates trended upward in the 1970s and early 1980s, the market value of fixed-rate S&L             mortgages (increased/decreased).

 6.        Thrifts still emphasize home mortgage lending because of _______________ .
7.        Federal S&Ls are regulated by the ________ and insured by ________.

8.        ______ ______ credit unions assist in the flow of funds among member credit unions.

9.         In contrast to banks, consumer finance companies raise their funds in (large/small) amounts       and make (large/small) loans.

10.       Finance companies have trended toward more (business/consumer) loans and more       (secured/unsecured) consumer loans.

 

TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS

T          F          1.        Compared to 25 years ago, there are more thrifts earning lower profits.

T                                  F         2.        When market interest rates fall, the market value of fixed-rate mortgages increases.

T          F          3.        Most savings and loans are owned by their service corporations.

T          F          4.        Fed funds are an important source of thrift funds.

T                                  F         5.        If an S&L forecasted falling interest rates over the next five years, it would probably promote variable-rate loans.

T                                  F         6.        Savings and loan associations have been an important national policy tool for promoting home ownership.

T          F          7.        The Resolution Trust Corporation manages the assets of failed thrifts.

T          F          8.        Credit union membership is growing, but the number of credit unions is declining.

T          F          9.        The U.S. Central Credit Union acts as a kind of “central bank” for credit unions.

T          F          10.       Finance companies borrow heavily in both the money and capital markets.

 

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

 1.        Thrifts traditionally depended upon a yield curve that
a.         was sloping downward.
b.         was flat.
c.         was upward sloping.
d.         was none of the above.

 2.        Many thrifts have converted to stock corporations in order to
a.         enhance their ability to raise borrowed capital.
b.         enable the firm to raise equity capital.
c.         enable the firm to have shareholders.
d.         enable management to maximize their personal wealth.

 3.        The classic model of thrift management involved
a.         a negative maturity gap
b.         a negative duration gap
c.         a positive maturity gap
d.         a zero gap

 4.        FHLB stands for
a.         Federal Home Loan Bank
b.         Federal Housing Leverage Bureau
c.         Financial Holdings Long Bond
d.         Forward Hedge Linked Bond

 5.        Credit Unions differ from thrifts chiefly in terms of
a.         ownership structure
b.         loan emphasis
c.         deposit insurance
d.         all of the above

 6.        Which one of the following would reduce the high negative GAP position of a S&L?
a.         increased fixed-rate mortgages
b.         increased long-term CDs
c.         increased MMDAs
d.         increased Federal funds purchased

 7.        Finance companies are securitizing more of their receivables
a.         under regulatory pressure
b.         for essentially the same reasons as banks
c.         to widen their GAP
d.         to circumvent rate ceilings

 8.         Service companies organized by CUNA assist credit unions by
a.         providing share draft insurance.
b.         providing data processing.
c.         providing investment services.
d.         all of the above

 9.         The primary regulator of credit unions is
a.         the Central Liquidity Facility.
b.         the central credit union.
c.         the National Credit Union Administration.
d.         the National Credit Union Share Insurance Fund.

10.        Major finance companies place their commercial paper "directly," which means
a.         directly from the bank.
b.         through direct contact with dealers.
c.         through direct contact with suppliers of funds.
d.         directly through the mail.

 

 

SOLUTIONS TO COMPLETION QUESTIONS

 1.        savings associations; savings banks

 2.        long; short; losses

 3.        Depository Institutions Deregulation & Monetary Control Act (1980);
Garn-St. Germain Act (1982).

 4.        mortgage loans; deposits

 5.        decreased

 6.        federal tax breaks

 7.        Office of Thrift Supervision; FDIC-Savings Association Insurance Fund

 8.        Corporate central

 9.        large; small

10.       business; secured

 

SOLUTIONS TO TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS

 1.        F          The industry has consolidated significantly and become more profitable.

 2.        T          The recent decline in interest rates has increased the value of the fixed-rate mortgage portfolio. Security prices vary inversely with interest rates.

 3.        F          Most S&Ls own subsidiary service corporations which perform mortgage servicing,  financing, and other services.

 4.        F          Thrifts borrow more from the Federal Home Loan Banks than in the Fed funds market.

 5.        F          The S&L would try to lock in today’s higher yields while letting cost of funds decline.

 6.        T          Tax incentives keep them significantly involved in home mortgages.

 7.        F          The RTC was disbanded in 1995.

 8.        T          With deregulation, competition is keener and economies of scale are an incentive to   consolidate.
9.        T          Provides banking services to corporate central credit unions.

10.       T          Their debt structure is a mix of money market (commercial paper) and capital market obligations.

 

SOLUTIONS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

 1.        c          An upward sloping yield curve (rates by time) enables one to borrow short (low) and lend   long (high) with a consistent spread.

 2.        b          The need for added net worth and to take advantage of the holding company form are significant reasons.

 3.        a          Long-term mortgages; short-term deposits; negative maturity gap.

4.        a          Federal Home Loan Bank

 5.        d          Credit Unions are mutually owned, focus on smaller consumer loans, and obtain deposit    insurance through NCUSIF or CUNA.

 6.        b          The S&L has more rate sensitive liabilities than rate sensitive assets and can reduce this  negative GAP (GAP = RSA - RSL) by rolling more of its RSL into long-term CDs.

 7.        b          For essentially the same reason as banks—increase income, reduced asset commitments.

 8.        d          These service companies provide a flexible means of responding to market needs.

 9.        c          NCUA charters, insures, and examines federal credit unions.

10.       c          Major finance companies borrow on a continuous basis and have established borrowing    relationships in direct money markets.