Before History

Chapter 1: Before History
Chapter 1 Reading Questions:

1. What is the significance of the cave art? Paintings in caves inhabited or frequented by Cro-Magnon peoples are the most dramatic examples of prehistoric art. It is conceivable that Cro-Magnon artists sometimes worked for purely aesthetic reasons-to beautify their living quarters. But many examples of cave art occur in places that are almost inaccessible to human beings. Paintings in such remote areas presumably had some other purpose. Cave paintings may have represented efforts to exercise “sympathetic magic”-to gain control over subjects by capturing their sprits.
2. What is meant by the Neolithic era? The term Neolithic era means new stone age. There were refinements in tool-making techniques: they found polished stone tools in Neolithic sites. These tools were found in sites where peoples relied on cultivation, rather than foraging, for their subsistence. The emergence of agriculture soon emerged.
3. What types of agriculture was found in Mesoamerica? People cultivated maize (corn) as early as 4000 B.C.E., and they later added a range of additional food crops, including beans, peppers, squashes, and tomatoes. Residents of the central Andean region of South America cultivated potatoes after 3000 B.C.E., and they later added maize and beans to their diets. The domesticated animals include llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs.
4. How did the gradual transformation from hunting and gathering to agriculture probably occur? How did it spread? Neolithic peoples sought to ensure themselves of more regular food supplies by encouraging the growth of edible crops and bringing wild animals into dependence on human keepers. Many scholars believe that women most likely began the systematic care of plants. As the principal gatherers in foraging communities, women became familiar with the life cycles of plants and noticed the effects of sunshine, rain, and temperature on vegetation. Hoping for larger and more reliable supplies of food, women in Neolithic societies probably began to nurture plants instead of simply collecting available foods in the wild, Meanwhile, instead of just stalking game with the intention of killing it for meat, Neolithic men began to capture animals and domesticate them by providing for their needs and supervising their breeding. Once established, agriculture spread rapidly, partly because of the methods of early cultivators, One of the earliest techniques, known as slash-and-burn cultivation, involved frequent movement on the part of farmers. Migrations of these cultivators helped spread agriculture.
5. What were the most significant positive and negative effects of the agricultural transition on human society? Agriculture involved long hours of hard physical labor-clearing land, preparing fields, planting seeds, pulling weeds, and harvesting crops. Indeed, agriculture probably required more kit work than Paleolithic foraging. Yet agriculture had its  own appeal in that it made possible the production of abundant food supplies.
6. What were the earliest craft industries to emerge and how did they benefit those living in Neolithic villages? Three early craft industries-pottery, metallurgy, and textile production-illustrated the potential of specialized labor in Neolithic times. Pottery became a medium of artistic expression as well as a source of practical utensils (storing food). Metallurgy was used for jewelry, decorative items, knives, axes, hoes, and weapons. Textile production was used to make cloth.
7. How did early cities differ from Neolithic villages and towns? Cities were larger and more complex than Neolithic villages and towns. They also decisively influenced the political, economic, and cultural life of large regions.
8. Which were the areas of the world where cities began to emerge? The earliest known cities grew out of agricultural villages and towns in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq. During the following centuries cities appeared in several other parts of the world, including Egypt, northern India, northern China, central Mexico, and the central Andean region of South America.