History
PAPER -V
UNIT I Concept of History
Meaning, Nature and Scope of History
Aims and Objectives of Teaching History at secondary level Values of Teaching History
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Concept of History
1.2.1 Defining History
1.2.2 Nature of History
1.2.3 The modern concept of history
1.2.4 History – a Science or an Art
1.2.5 Arguments against History as a science
1.2.6 History is both a Science and an Art
1.3 Scope of History
1.4 Aims and objectives of teaching History at secondary level
1.4.1 General Aims of Teaching History
1.4.2 Aims of Teaching History at Secondary Stage
1.4.3 Objectives of teaching History at Secondary Stage
1.5 Values of teaching History
1.6 Summary
1.7 Unit End Questions
1.8 Suggested Readings
1.0 Introduction
History is the study of life in society in the past, in all its aspect, in relation to present developments and future hopes. It is the story of man in time, an inquiry into the past based on evidence. Indeed, evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning. It is an Inquiry into what happened in the past, when it happened, and how it happened. It is an inquiry into the inevitable changes in human affairs in the past and the ways these changes affect, influence or determine the patterns of life in the society. History is, or should be an attempt to re-think the past. Collingwood (1945) is particularly interested in this concept of history.
History aims at helping students to understand the present existing social, political, religious and economic conditions of the people. Without the knowledge of history we cannot have the background of our religion, customs institutions, administration and so on. The teaching of history helps the students to explain the present, to analyze it and to trace its course. Cause- and-effect relationship between the past and the present is lively presented in the history. History thus helps us to understand the present day problems both at the national and international level accurately and objectively.
In this unit we will be dealing with meaning, nature and scope of history, aims and objectives of teaching history at secondary level and values of teaching history.
1.1 Objectives
After completing this unit, the student will be able to:
• Define History
• Explain the nature of History
• Describe the scope of History
• Explain the aims and objectives of teaching History at Secondary level
• Describe the values of teaching History
1.2 Concept of History
History is the analysis and interpretation of the human past enabling us to study continuity and changes that are taking place over time. It is an act of both investigation and imagination that seeks to explain how people have changed over time. Historians use all forms of evidence to examine, interpret, revisit, and reinterpret the past. These include not just written documents, but also oral communication and objects such as buildings, artifacts, photographs, and paintings. Historians are trained in the methods of discovering and evaluating these sources and the challenging task of making historical sense out of them. History is a means to understand the past and present. The different interpretations of the past allow us to see the present differently and therefore imagine—and work towards—different futures. It is often said to be the “queen” or “mother” of the social sciences. It is the basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities and Social Sciences. It is also the basis of the study of philosophy,
politics, economics and even art and religion. No wonder, it is considered an indispensible subject in the complete education of man.
1.2.1 Defining history
The origin of the word History is associated with the Greek word ‘Historia’ which means ‘information’ or ‘an enquiry designed to elicit truth’.
History has been defined differently by different scholars. Following definitions indicate the meaning and scope of History.
Burckhardt: “History is the record of what one age finds worthy of note in another.” Henry Johnson: “History, in its broadest sense, is everything that ever happened.”
Smith,V.S: “The value and interest of history depend largely on the degree in which the present is illuminated by the past.”
Rapson: “History is a connected account of the course of events or progress of ideas.”
NCERT: “History is the scientific study of past happenings in all their aspects, in the life of a social group, in the light of present happenings.”
Jawaharlal Nehru: “History is the story of Man’s struggle through the ages against Nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own benefit.”
The above definitions explain History as a significant records of events of the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details of what happened to man and why it happened. Mainly it deals with the human world.
1.2.2 Nature of History
1. A study of the present in the light of the past: The present has evolved out of the past. Modern history enables us to understand how society has come to its present form so that one may intelligently interpret the sequence of events. The causal relationships between the selected happenings are unearthed that help in revealing the nature of happenings and framing of general laws.
2. History is the study of man: History deals with man’s struggle through the ages. History is not static. By selecting “innumerable biographies” and presenting their lives in the appropriate social context and the ideas in the human context, we understand the sweep of events. It traces the fascinating story of how man has developed through the ages, how man has studied to use and control his environment and how the present institutions have grown out of the past.
3. History is concerned with man in time: It deals with a series of events and each event occurs at a given point in time. Human history, in fact, is the process of human development in time. It is time which affords a perspective to events and lends a charm that brightens up the past.
4. History is concerned with man in space: The interaction of man on environment and vice versa is a dynamic one. History describes about nations and human activities in the context of their physical and geographical environment. Out of this arise the varied trends in the political, social, economic and cultural spheres of man’s activities and achievements.
5. Objective record of happenings: Every precaution is taken to base the data on original sources and make them free from subjective interpretation. It helps in clear understanding of the past and enables us to take well informed decisions.
6. Multisided: All aspects of the life of a social group are closely interrelated and historical happenings cover all these aspects of life, not limited only to the political aspect that had so long dominated history.
7. History is a dialogue between the events of the past and progressively emerging future ends. The historian’s interpretation of the past, his selection of the significant and the relevant events, evolves with the progressive emergence of new goals. The general laws regulating historical happenings may not be considered enough; attempts have to be made to predict future happenings on the basis of the laws.
8. Not only narration but also analysis: The selected happenings are not merely narrated; the causal relationships between them are properly unearthed. The tracing of these relationships lead to the development of general laws that are also compared and contrasted with similar happenings in other social groups to improve the reliability and validity of these laws.
9. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history: History carries the burden of human progress as it is passed down from generation to generation, from society to society, justifying the essence of continuity.
10. Relevant: In the study of history only those events are included which are relevant to the understanding of the present life.
11. Comprehensiveness: According to modern concept, history is not confined to one period or country or nation. It also deals with all aspects of human life-political, social, economic, religious, literary, aesthetic and physical, giving a clear sense of world unity and world citizenship.
1.2.3 The modern concept of history
Modern history has gone beyond the traditional status of an antiquarian and leisure time pursuit to a very useful and indispensible part of a man’s education. It is more scientific and more comprehensive. It has expanded in all directions both vertically and horizontally. It has become broad-based and attractive. According to modern concept, history does not contain
only the history of kings and queens, battles and generals, but the history of the common man-his house and clothing, his fields and their cultivation, his continued efforts to protect his home and hearth, and to obtain a just government, his aspirations, achievements, disappointments, defeats and failures. It is not only the individual but the communities and the societies are the subject of study of history. Study of history deepens our understanding of the potentialities and limitations of the present. It has thus become a future-oriented study related to contemporary problems. For all these reasons, history has assumed the role of a human science.
1.2.4 History-a Science or an Art
Opinions are very much divided on the question whether history is a science or an art.
History is a science in the sense that it pursues its own techniques to establish and interpret facts. Like other natural sciences such as the Physics and Chemistry uses various methods of enquiry such as observation, classification, experiment and formulation of hypothesis and analysis of evidence before interpreting and reconstructing the past. History also follows the scientific method of enquiry to find out the truth. Though historian uses scientific techniques, experiment is impossible since history deals with events that have already happened and cannot be repeated.
1.2.5 Arguments against History as a science
1. No forecasting: Rickman has rightly said, “History deals with sequence of events, each of them unique while Science is concerned with the routine appearance of things and aims at generalizations and the establishment of regularities, governed by laws.”A historian cannot arrive at general principles or laws which may enable him to predict with certainty the occurrence of like events, under given conditions. A scientist on the other hand, looks at knowledge from a universal angle and arrives at certain generalizations that help him to control the present and predict the future.
2. Complex: The facts of history are very complicated and seldom repeat in the real sense of the term.
3. Varied: The underlying facts of history have wide scope. They are so varied that they can seldom be uniform.
4. No observation and experimentation: Historical data are not available for observation and experimentation.
5. No dependable data: Historical data are the products of human thoughts and action which are constantly changing. They therefore cannot provide dependable data for the formation of general principles and laws.
1.2.6 History is both a Science and an Art
History is a unique subject possessing the potentialities of both a science and an art. It does the enquiry after truth, thus history is a science and is on scientific basis. It is also based on the narrative account of the past; thus it is an art or a piece of literature. Physical and natural sciences are impersonal, impartial and capable of experimentation. Whereas absolute impartiality is not possible in history because the historian is a narrator and he looks at the past from a certain point of view. History cannot remain at the level of knowing only. The construction and reconstruction of the past are inevitable parts of history. Like the work of art, its wholeness, harmony and truth are inseparable from a concrete and vivid appreciation of its parts. History, in fact, is a social science and an art. In that lie its flexibility, its variety and excitement.
1.3 Scope of History
The scope of History is vast; it is the story of man in relation to totality of his behavior. The scope of history means the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and extent of learning experiences, provided by the study. History which was only limited to a local saga, has during the course of century become universal history of mankind, depicting man’s achievements in every field of life-political, economic, social, cultural, scientific, technological, religious and artistic etc., and at various levels-local, regional, national, and international. It starts with the past; makes present its sheet-anchor and points to the future. Events like wars, revolutions, rise and fall of empires, fortunes and misfortunes of great empire builders as well as the masses in general are all the subject matter of history. History is a comprehensive subject and includes-History of Geography, History of Art, History of Culture, History of Literature, History of Civilization, History of Religion, History of Mathematics, History of Physics, History of Chemistry, History of Education, History of Biology, History of Atom, History of Philosophy-in fact history of any and every social, physical and natural science we are interested in. History today has become an all-embracing, comprehensive subject with almost limitless extent.
Self Assessment Questions
1.4 Aims and objectives of teaching History at secondary level
The aims and objectives of teaching history have undergone changes with the shift in the philosophical thinking of the time and changes in the social and political practices. Education is the process of bringing about desirable changes in the behavior of pupils. The idea of the desirable changes has varied at different times in accordance with the dominant philosophical creed of the society and prevalent social and political practices.
Determination of aims and objectives is necessary to point to the broad ideals and to enable us in selecting significant and meaningful content, teaching methods and techniques. Aims are a true compass to make our journey safe and secure in the pedagogical sea. They are the crux and the key of the entire process of teaching and learning.
The aims of teaching history will have to be in consonance with the broader aims of education and the objectives, which teachers should view while teaching the subject, have to be precise and definite. Aims refer to general and long term goals whereas the Objectives indicate immediate, specific and attainable goals.
1.4.1 General Aims of Teaching History
1. To promote self-understanding: History needs to be taught to promote self- understanding. Everyone has a heritage which is uniquely his, a combination of racial, national, family and individual traditions which are woven into his very being. Without enquiry into these historical factors, man will remain a stranger to himself. Similarly in the absence of historical study, groups and persons will fail to comprehend their own identity. Being a key subject, history provides useful information necessary for understanding the common allusions in daily reading-names, places, dates and events etc. Thus the knowledge of history is a part of the self-awareness and realization of our environment.
2. To give proper conception of time, space and society: History gives a proper understanding of the concept of time, space and society. It reveals the relationship of the present with the past, the local with the distant and personal and national life with the lives and the cultures of men and women in other countries, in time and space. History is a link uniting each of us as an individual with a whole greater than ourselves.
3. To enable the pupils to assess the values and achievements of their own age: History provides the youths the standards of reference against which they can measure the values and achievements of their own age. This enables them to have an enlightened awareness of the problems of modern communities, political, social and economic.
4. To teach tolerance: History teaches tolerance- tolerance with different faiths, different loyalties, different cultures, different ideas and ideals.
5. To develop right attitudes: Development of right attitudes is based on an appreciation of things which are worth-while in life. Attitudes depend upon intellectual and emotional factors. Scientific attitude is intellectual, like, judgment based on facts are unaffected by personal feelings. The teacher has to help his pupils in building up the right attitudes. But before being able to develop desirable attitudes among his pupils by his own example, he himself must exhibit self-control, patient, sympathy and self-respect.
6. To foster national feelings: An important objective of teaching history is the emotional and national integration of Indian people. Emotional integration is a feeling of oneness among the people of different cultures, religions, castes and languages. It is the sharing of certain common objectives, ideals and purposes and giving them high place over smaller and sectional loyalties. History can play a very important role in realizing this aim.
7. To develop international understanding: The swift growth of means of communication among various nations has hastened the exchange of ideas and dependence on each other on various aspects of life. History is one subject that can promote international understanding in the best possible way. It can destroy prejudices existing among nations; it can also overplay the fundamental unity and interdependence among nations and underplay the sources of disunity.
8. To give training for handling controversial issues: Teaching history helps pupils to handle controversial questions in a spirit that searches for truth-insists on free discussion and permits compromise. It can expose the pupils to a vast knowledge which will enable them to tackle controversial issues objectively.
9. To impart mental training: History can stimulate thought, judgement and discrimination and create a scientific attitude in the adolescent as a counterbalance to his emotional instability. It trains the pupils to be accurate in comprehension and expression.
10. To teach moral principles: History teacher is in an excellent position to inculcate moral values in pupils’ mind. Life stories of great saints, heroes and reformers, like Shankracharya, Buddha, Rama, Maharana Pratap, Guru Nanak, Swami Dayananda, Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi, etc. encourage pupils to be truthful, courageous, just and selfless.
11. To help resolve our contemporary social and individual problems: History helps in resolving our contemporary social and individual problems and developing mature judgments on immediate social issues, trends and prospects in the field of commerce, industry, international affairs, regional politics and other aspects of the contemporary society.
12. To promote socialization among pupils: An important aim of history teaching is the socialization of pupils in order to make them well informed and enlightened citizens, capable of promoting common welfare. Socialization awakens a sense of developing confidence, courage and happiness within oneself. It develops individual and social virtues of initiative, thoughtfulness, righteousness, constructive thinking, critical judgment, justice, tolerance, co-operation, fellow feeling and sacrifice etc.
1.4.2 Aims of Teaching History at Secondary Stage
The intellectual maturity of pupils at this stage reaches almost adult standards. The main focus at this level is on the stages in the growth of human civilizations and the evolution of social systems and on cultural and scientific development.
The main aims of teaching history at this stage are:
1. To promote an understanding of the process of change: History is the only subject that can unfold the process of change and development through which human societies have evolved to their present stage of development.
2. To acquire knowledge of significant world events: The pupils through the learning of history get the knowledge of happenings outside the life of the nation which are significant to the life of the world as a social group or significant to some happening in the life of the nation (such as French revolution, the Industrial revolution, etc.).
3. To promote an understanding of the common roots of human civilization: All major civilizations of the world have common roots, leaving aside some major local characteristics; most of them have common features which point to the basic unity of mankind. One of the important aims of history is to point to this basic unity.
4. To develop an appreciation of the contributions made by various cultures: The cultures of different countries have contributed in one way or the other to the total heritage of mankind. History can bring this to the knowledge of the pupils and that is to be understood and appreciated.
5. To develop an understanding of causal relationships: By the understanding of the causal relationship between historical happenings, pupils may be able to have some insight into the process of framing historical laws and utilizing them for prediction. For example, from the facts studied in history regarding the French Revolution they may be able to conclude that other things being equal, when the social, political and economic frustrations of the general mass of people in a social group reaches an unbearable point, revolution is bound to break out. With this law as the basis the pupils may discuss, whether India has reached the point of revolution at the moment or not and what India might do to avert a revolution.
1.4.3 Objectives of teaching History at Secondary Stage
1. Knowledge: The pupil should acquire knowledge of terms, concepts, facts, events, symbols, ideas, conventions, problems, trends, personalities, chronology and generalizations, etc. related to the study of history. The pupil should be able to:
• Recall facts, terms, concepts, events, etc;
• Recognize facts, terms, concepts, events, etc;
• Show information on maps, charts, diagrams, etc;
• Read information presented in various forms.
2. Understanding: The pupil should develop understanding of terms, facts, principal events, trends, etc, related to the study of history. The pupil should be able to:
• Classify facts, events, terms, and concepts, etc;
• Illustrate events, trends, etc., by citing examples;
• Compare and contrast the events, trends and concepts, etc;
• Explain events, terms, and concepts, causes and effects, trends, etc;
• Discriminate between the significant and insignificant, important and less important causes, effects events, etc;
• Identify relationship between cause and effect, means and ends;
• Arrange facts, trends, etc., in a particular known order;
• Detect errors in the statement and rectify them;
• Interpret the maps, charts, etc. and
• Extract from the different courses of history.
3. Critical Thinking: The subject should enable the pupils to develop critical thinking. The pupil should be able to:
• Identify the problems;
• Analyze the problems;
• Collect evidence;
• Sift evidence, facts and opinion;
• Select relevant evidence and facts and weigh them;
• Establish relationship and marshal facts;
• Draw conclusions;
• Advance arguments in support of his contention;
• Verify the interferences.
4. Practical Skills: The subject should enable the pupils to develop practical skills helpful in the study and understanding of historical facts. The pupil should be able to:
• Draw maps, charts, diagrams, etc;
• Prepare models, tools, etc.
5. Interests: The subject should enable the pupil to develop interest in the study of history. The pupil, on his own, should be able to:
• Collect coins and other historical materials;
• Prepare illustrative material aids;
• Participate in historical dramas and mock sessions of historical events;
• Visit places of historical interests, archeological sites, museums and archives;
• Read historical documents, maps and charts;
• Write articles on historical and other related topics.
6. Attitudes: The subject should enable the pupil to develop healthy social attitudes. The pupil should:
• Possess the sense of patriotism;
• Show respect towards other people’s opinion, ideas, beliefs and ways of life;
• Read about other faiths and religions;
• Establish friendship with pupils of other communities and faiths;
• Practice the spirit of noble ideal;
• Cooperate with others in the social and civic activities;
Appreciate cultural variations; contributions made by various countries, interdependence of nations and peoples and the need for settling disputes among nations in a peaceful manner through world organizations like the U.N.O.
Believe in the equality of man irrespective of race, castes, religion and colour.
Self Assessment Questions
1.5 Values of teaching History
Value is that experience or fruit which one gets in the path of achieving aim whereas aim is a conscious and active purpose that we always keep before our mind. It always remains before us in the path of achievement. History is valuable as a study in more ways than one. Some of the values are general that is they apply to the teaching of the subject in all circumstances. Other values are limited and specific. They apply to particular types of history, hold for a particular level of schooling or are the necessary result of teaching if carried out in a particular way.
The values of teaching history may be stated as under:
Disciplinary value: History is quite fruitful for mental training. It trains the mental faculties such as critical thinking, memory and imagination. It quickens and deepens understanding, gives an insight into the working of social, political, economic, and religious problems.
Informative value: History is a wonderful treasure-house of information and can offer guidance for the solution to all human problems pertaining to science and art, language and literature, social and political life, philosophical speculation and economic development. History shows us the roots without uprooting the tree. A mere emotional attachment to our past can do us little good, unless it is accompanied with a sober, matured and rational assessment of the values involved. History is a path finder of man’s future.
Cultural and social values: It is essential that one should understand the importance of his/her own cultural and social values. We should also develop attachment towards our cultural heritage. History makes us able to understand our present culture. It expounds the culture of the present time by describing the past. It explains the origin of existing state of things, our customs, our usages, our institutions. It enables us to understand that the transformations in human history were brought about by change of habits and of innovation. One of the main motives of history teaching has been to convey to the pupils the rich heritage of the mankind. It develops an understanding of the different forces which have shaped the destiny of man and paved the way for his development in society.
Political values: History is regarded to be the past politics. According to T.S. Seeley, “The historian is a politician of the political group or organization, the state being his study. To lecture on political science is to lecture on history.” History stands as a beacon of hope when some nation is overcast with dark clouds. History is extremely necessary for completing the political and social sciences which are still in the making. History supplements them by a study of the development of these phenomena in time.
Nationalistic value: History teaching renders an effective service in imbibing the young minds with a sense of patriotism. It is through history alone that an Indian child comes to know of the various deeds performed by such patriots as Shivaji, Rana Pratap, Guru Gobind Singh, Rani Lakshmibai, Bhagat Singh, Gandhiji, Nehru, etc. By reading their great lives and deeds, the child can easily be inspired to emulate them. A proper teaching of history can prepare the way for sober nationalism.
Internationalistic value: History shows the dependence and interdependence of nations which is the root of internationalism. The domain of history is very extensive and wide. Through a survey of world history, the young learners will come to realize that although different peoples had and still have different customs, habits, laws, and institutions; they have been striving towards the same end. The realization of essential unity of human race is the first step towards fostering universal understanding based on the virtues of tolerance, kindliness, love, sympathy, and goodwill.
Educational value: History has unique value and importance because it is the only school subject which is directly and entirely concerned with the behavior and action of human
beings. The imagination of the children is developed through the teaching of history. It is logical to treat history as a temporal canvas against which the facts learned in other subjects can be arranged. History is a veritable mine of stories-stories can illustrate even subject of curriculum- the only condition is that the teacher should know enough stories and should know how to narrate them.
Intellectual value: A large number of intellectual values accrue from the teaching of history. It sharpens memory, develops the power of reasoning, judgement and imagination. It cultivates the qualities of reading, analyzing, criticizing, and arriving at conclusions. In historical writings our past is alive and treasured in the form of chronicles, biographies, stories and other forms of literary tradition. Once the pupils’ curiosity is aroused and interest awakened, he can easily browse the vast pastures of historical knowledge.
Ethical value: History is important in the curriculum because it helps in the teaching of morality. Through it a child comes close to the valuable thoughts of saints, reformers, leaders, important persons and sages. The children get inspired by the life stories of these great leaders. There are other arguments that go against this notion that history gives ethical teaching.
• Truth or virtue does not always have the victory and falsehood or wickedness does not always come to grief. Many times it has been seen that honest and truth- loving man faces difficulties throughout the life and wicked and liars succeed in life.
• On the basis of experience and observations it has been seen that students do not take any interest in the work and life of saints and holy persons. They take more interest in the deeds of warriors and they almost worship them.
• One more argument is that the lives of great men are full of complexities. Both good and evil are present in their characters. It would be unscientific if only their goodness is described. It is possible that students may emulate evils from the characters presented if both the elements are presented.
Above given arguments are quite convincing. Teachers should be given this suggestion that in teaching history they should impart the ethical teaching not directly but indirectly.
Vocational value: History has its vocational value. There are several openings for persons well qualified in the subject. They can get jobs of teachers, librarians, archivists, curators of museums, secretaries of institutions, social service workers, and political journalists etc.
Self Assessment Questions
1.6 Summary
History is the basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities and Social Sciences. It is often said to be the “queen” or “mother” of the social sciences. History is considered an indispensible subject in the complete education of man and it has been defined differently by different scholars. According to modern concept, history does not only contain the history of kings and queens, battles and generals, but also the communities and the societies are the subject of study of history as well. History is a unique subject possessing the potentialities of both science and art. As an enquiry after truth, history is a science and as a narrative account of the past, it is an art or a piece of literature.
History is a study of man. It is concerned with man in time and space. It explains the present in the light of the past. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history. The scope of history is vast; it is the story of man in relation to totality of his behavior. It starts with the past; makes present its sheet-anchor and points to the future.
The aims and objectives of teaching history have undergone changes with the shift in the philosophical thinking of the time and changes in the social and political practices. Determination of aims and objectives is necessary. Instructional objectives need to be clearly defined. The pupils should acquire knowledge, should develop specific understandings, attitudes, interests and appreciations, relevant to history.
History is valuable as a study in more ways than one. The values of teaching history are- disciplinary, informative, educational, ethical, cultural, intellectual, political, nationalistic, internationalistic and vocational.
1.7 Unit End Questions
1) What do you mean by History? How is it interpreted in its modern context?
2) History is a science as well as an art. Discuss.
3) “The scope of history is wide-the theme is the past, present and future of man.” In the light of this statement, discuss the scope of the subject.
4) “History is a scientific study and a record of our complete past.” In the light of this statement, discuss the nature of history.
5) Explain the difference between aims of teaching history and instructional objectives of teaching history.
6) Discuss briefly the values of teaching history in our schools.
1.8 Suggested Readings
Carr, E.H., What is History? New York: Macmillan, 1961;
Central Board of Secondary Education, Syllabi and Courses for All India Senior School Certificate Examination, 1979, published in 1981.
Chaudhry,K.P., Effective teaching of History in India, New Delhi; National Council of Education and Research and Training, 1975;
Collingwood,R.G, The Idea of History, London; Oxford University Press, 1951;
Ghate, V.D., Suggestions for the Teaching of History, Bombay; Oxford University Press, 1953;
Jeffrey, M.V.C., History in Schools; The Study and development, London: Pitman, 1948; Mathias, Paul, The Teachers Handbook for Social Studies, London; Brandford Press, 1973;
UNIT-II History Syllabus Selection and grading of the subject matter in History Different approaches in arrangement of content in History
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 History Syllabus (A- Selection and grading of the subject matter in history)
2.2.1 Principles of selecting History Curriculum
2.2.2 Selection of the subject matter for different stages
2.2.2.1 Cultural Epoch Theory
2.2.2.2 Biographical Approach
2.2.2.3 Psychological Theory
2.2.3 History syllabus for different classes as recommended by Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee
2.3 History Syllabus (B-Different Approaches in arrangement of content in history)
2.3.1 Topical Approach
2.3.2 Chronological Approach
2.3.3 Concentric Approach
2.3.4 Regressive Approach
2.4 Summary
2.5 Unit End Questions
2.6 Suggested Reading
2.0 Introduction
History enables students to appreciate the human achievements of the past, for their own interest and for the legacy left to later generations. The aim of history syllabus should be to stimulate students’ interest in and enjoyment of exploring the past, to develop a critical understanding of the past and to enable them to participate as active, informed and responsible citizens. In the history syllabus students are given opportunities for self- understanding, proper conception of time, space and society, handling controversial issues and developing national and international understanding.
Understanding about the past requires us to seek out knowledge as well as apply historical skills to determine why events occurred and what motivated the people to take the action they took. This is an inquiry based approach. An inquiry based approach helps students to
grapple with the problems and issues of history. Skills in History must be taught in connection to content. Skills need to be practiced and reinforced throughout a unit of work.
History as an independent subject or a part of environmental studies or social sciences forms an important part of the high school curriculum. The primary purpose of inclusion of history broadly, is to widen the horizons of the students. While framing the syllabus proper care should be taken to develop the child’s awareness and understanding of the society in which he lives, from his immediate environment to the country and to the world as a whole. This unit is focused on the selection and grading of the subject matter in history and different approaches in arrangement of content in history.
2.1 Objectives
After completing this unit, the student will be able to:
• Explain the principles of selecting History curriculum at different levels
• Describe various theories of selecting subject matter for History curriculum at different levels
• Describe the History syllabus for different classes as recommended by Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee
• Describe the different approaches in arrangement of content in history
2.2 History Syllabus
a) Selection and grading of the subject matter in history
The development of curriculum in history is a complex and intricate process. Although the curriculum in our country is mainly done by a committee of specialists, the teachers are also being associated in this work in a big way. It is the teachers who have to implement the curriculum. The study of history offers a wide range of materials involves numerous skills and leads to insight and generalizations which will challenge the varied capacities of each student. As the scope of history is vast, within the limited period of time, the decision on what to teach at different grades needs to be made wisely and carefully. A good curriculum for a particular class is that which is convenient, well-planned, appropriate, presenting a sensible and orderly appearance. As an independent subject or a part of environmental studies or social sciences history forms an important part of the high school curriculum. In classes XI and XII, it is included as a separate subject, usually an optional subject.
2.2.1 Principles of selecting History Curriculum
1. The curriculum selected should help in the achievement of aims of teaching history: The main aim of the course of history is not only to provide information to pupils but also it should make possible among them a growth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests and values. The power of reasoning, thinking, memory and decision are all related to it. Fulfillment of these aims should be taken into account while selecting the subject matter.
2. The curriculum selected should be appropriate to the age and ability of that group of pupils to whom it is to be taught: The study material of history should be kept according to traits and
psychological growth of children. The curriculum must answer the needs of the pupils at a particular age. The material selected must be up-to-date. Thus the curriculum should be child centered.
3. The contents of the subject matter should have functional relationship between them: The entire curriculum in each class should be well connected with the previous and the succeeding classes. No effort should be spared in coordinating our work in history with the political, social, economic, cultural and religious history and other activities that are going on in the neighbourhood.
4. The curriculum must be wide and comprehensive: The selection of curriculum should be such that the pupil can learn about the story of humanity starting from the local history, proceeding through the regional and national history and ultimately reaching the world history. The curriculum should be so comprehensive as to enable the pupils to comprehend the present world of human thought and activity.
5. The curriculum selected should lay emphasis on national and world history: The curriculum should serve as an instrument of social regeneration. It should bring out not only the political, social, cultural and economic features of the different countries that are studied but also the process of inter-communication and cooperation between different nations and continents.
6. The curriculum should be based on the principle of concentration and correlation: According to Ziller while concentrating on one subject, education of other subjects should be imparted. For this history should be attached to the daily life and the materials of local history should be kept in curriculum. Those materials of history should be selected which can form co-relation in both the forms-vertical and horizontal. When one lesson of history helps in understanding of the other it is known as vertical correlation where as the correlation between the subject-topics of one subject with the subject topics of other subjects is known as horizontal correlation.
7. The curriculum should be based on the principle of integration with the daily lives of the common man: Such material should be given place in the curriculum of history which can fulfil the needs of the society and students. This can help the students to take active part in their future social life. History today is considered to have four dimensions; people, places, time and ideas. These are all indispensable for making the story of humanity intelligible. Now the focus of history curriculum has changed from the life and work of heroes, kings, queens and important personalities to the evolution and growth of societies in all their aspects.
2.2.2 Selection of the subject matter for different stages
Various theories have been advanced to select the subject matter.
2.2.2.1 The Culture-Epoch theory: This theory has been developed by Dr. Stanley Hall. According to Stanley Hall, the child in his own life repeats his successive stages or epochs through which the human race has passed in its course of evolution. The child, in repeating these epochs in his life, recapitulates the experience or culture of the race of each stage. Stanley Hall, went to the extent of believing that there is some biological arrangement in the makeup of the child because of which he naturally goes through the
different stages of the evolution of the culture of the human race and the child will not grow into a normal adult unless he is given the opportunity to go through these stages.
According to this theory there is similarity between man and race; means, man repeats his stages through which the entire human race’s cultural development has taken place. Therefore, the material of history should be taken from the stage of the cultural development of a race through which a child is passing. It means that a child, if he is very small, then he should be taught the story of early man and if he is grown up, he should be taught the history of youth of the race. The selection of facts for history should be done from this point of view. According to this theory we can arrange the teaching of history in the following manner:
(i) Ancient history for the primary stage.
(ii) Medieval history for the middle school stage.
(iii) Modern history for high school stage.
(iv) Present age history for higher classes.
Arguments against Cultural Epoch theory
(i) It was believed that the primitive life would be suitable for the young. The complexity of the medieval period would be suitable for the boys and the highly complicated modern history would be suitable for the grown up. But, it will have to be admitted that the complexity of the medieval period is in no way less than that of the modern period. It is the imaginative presentation of a period in all its picturesque details that is more valuable than the period chosen for the study. So what is claimed for the primitive period could be easily achieved even for a topic in the modern period.
(ii) A curriculum must have flexibility and not rigidity. It must be subject to revision in the light of historical research and of the changing needs of the times.
(iii) All races do not pass through identical stages of evolution. A cursory look at the world to-day will suffice to show that different races are at different stages of evolution.
(iv) Supporter of this theory feel that there is similarity between man and the evolution of race. There is no doubt to find to parallelism in the stages of child life. But latter on it is much more difficult to find such a parallelism in the life of the human race in historical period and that of the mental stage in the life of the boy.
2.2.2.2 Biographical Approach: Carlyle is the main exponent of this approach. The supporters of this approach are of the opinion that the selection of facts for history can be done according to the life histories. They feel that great men represent their time. They influence great historical movement. Therefore the stories of their life should be included in the curriculum of history. The teaching of history should be imparted through stories of these great men. According to this approach, history is taught as a series of stories of the great men of our country in a chronological order. The hero-worship in history is the outcome of this theory. At the early stage, general history is beyond the comprehension of children who understand individuals but not institutions, particular facts but not
principles. So, a preliminary study of these lives gives the pupils an insight into history and, at a later stage, they would be prepared to study the movement.
Arguments against Biographical Approach
(i) The theory is opposed to democracy. It puts emphasis on individualism and ignores collectivism. Therefore it cannot create a path for socialism. It also does not think anything for the common man.
(ii) The great men of history are not representatives of their times. They are away from the general society. They are revolutionary and rebels of the time. They may be great in their field; they cannot represent the development or the genius of the entire human life.
In spite of all these criticisms, this approach has been greatly influencing the history teaching in schools and has been responsible for the selection of content for the early classes. Even in the new syllabus suggested by the Patel Committee, this principle has been followed. What is needed is that a teacher of history while using this approach, should keep the following points in mind:
(i) Proper selection of personalities is needed for the content of the syllabus. Not only the great men and women of our country but also from different parts of the world should find a place in the syllabus. Along with the heroes, warriors, statesmen, rulers, who have shaped the destiny of mankind; scientists, explorers, inventors, artists, apostles of peace, religious prophets etc. should be included in the history syllabus.
(ii) We will not be benefited by the life story of any single great man unless the complete picture related to his life, his principles, his disciples, his followers , his activities, are not presented. Therefore, if we are studying about Buddhism, it would be incomplete unless the knowledge of Gautam Buddha’s character, his disciples, followers, propagators of Buddhism, his opponents are given.
(iii) The selected life story should be made keeping in mind the utility and its relevance of time. The system of such teaching of history should be done for the early stage.
2.2.2.3 The psychological theory: This theory aims at selecting that subject matter which satisfies the needs of the child in the successive stages of his mental life. A process of progression needs to be followed. This process has three definite stages: study of personalities, events and ideas.
In the initial stages, history will be taught through the medium of personalities. For the young minds, personalities are easy to understand. History will be made as concrete as possible at the early stage which is presentative in nature.
At the second stage, actions of the personalities resulting in events will be studied. Events like the conquests of Chengiz, the splitting of the atom and the flights in the space have completely overwhelmed us, changed us. This is the representative type of history which needs to be presented to the child who has strong imagination and takes interest in facts.
Ideas are the basis of all actions of personalities and are behind occurrence of all events and are, therefore, superior to both. This thought history which aims at giving a deeper
understanding of historical movements, and helps pupils to draw inferences and unify conclusions, will be taught in the third stage of child’s development.
A judicious combination of the three theories is needed to achieve the best results. The following suggestions will be found useful in selecting the subject matter for various stages:
(i) At the primary stage (up to class V) the whole of Indian history and some parts of the world could be presented in the form of stories of leading historical characters. Events can be grouped round such individuals.
(ii) At the junior high school stage (classes VI, VII, and VIII) the course may be repeated in the form of narrative history in which events and not persons may be emphasized.
(iii) At the secondary stage, significant movements, events from the ancient, medieval Indian history, and other countries of the world and modern world history may form an important part of the curriculum.
Self Assessment Questions
2.2.3 History syllabus for different classes as recommended by Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee
Environmental Studies, Class I and II
1. Our family
2. Our home
3. Our school
4. Our neighbourhood
5. Our earth
6. Our sky
7. Man’s life
Environmental Studies (Social Studies), Class III
1. The world we live in
2. Life in the district
3. Life in our state
4. Life in our country
5. Institutions which help us
6. Our heritage
Environmental Studies (Social Studies), Class IV
1. India: physical divisions
2. India: resources
3. India: transport and communication
4. The people of India
5. Indian heritage I
6. Indian heritage II
7. Our freedom struggle
Environmental Studies (Social Studies), Class V
1. The globe and map of the world
2. India and neighbouring countries
3. Our shrinking world
4. How we govern ourselves
5. The United Nations
6. The changing world History, Class VI, Ancient India
Class VII, Medieval India Class VIII, Modern India
Class IX and X, History of Mankind History syllabus suggested by NCERT Class VI, Ancient India
Class VII, Medieval India Class VIII, Modern India
Class IX and X, History of Mankind
Class XI, Ancient India and Early Medieval India Class XII, Modern India and Contemporary World
2.3 (B) Different Approaches in arrangement of content in history
Above mentioned theories i.e., cultural epoch theory, biographical approach and psychological theory are useful for the selection of subject matter in history syllabus for different stages. No theory is by itself is complete or satisfactory though it may be valuable for focusing our attention on certain aspects of the problem. In addition to all these theories there are a number of approaches that can also be used for organizing the subject matter of history which are briefly discussed below.
2.3.1 Topical Approach
Topical approach suggests dividing the history course into small units called topics, each topic representing an idea or a particular movement in history. These topics are generally selected on the basis of their suitability for the age, ability and interest of children. According to Professor Walsh, “when two or more events can be shown to be expressing the same purpose or policy, then the historian demonstrates the relationship. Topics in teaching consist in taking a group of events so related and teaching them as a group. Each topic or group contains several events, but they are logically and intelligently related as being part of the same movement or policy. The essential difference with line of development is that its basis of grouping is an institution or aspect of life, and secondly that the group is dealt with in isolation throughout the whole chronological period of the syllabus. With topics, the basis of grouping is a policy; it may be of long or short duration; it may contain several events or only two; it is essentially an empirical grouping.”
This approach is quite worthwhile for secondary and higher secondary classes. A careful and detailed study of the topics provides opportunities to the students for an intensive study of a particular problem. In this case instead of repeating the content a number of times, we can discuss all the aspects of a problem, once.
Advantages of Topical Approach
1. Topical approach allows a comprehensive treatment of the subject-matter from different angles.
2. It can be adopted according to the age, ability, and aptitude of the children.
3. This approach is quite worthwhile as it allows the teacher to organize his teaching around activities and projects. It enables the teacher to control the subject matter he may adapt it to the varying needs of the children.
4. Unnecessary details of historical dates and events can be eliminated. Only significant and meaningful subject-matter is provided.
5. Chronological method of the organization of facts is only possible through topical approach.
Limitations of Topical Approach
1. It lays more emphasis on the social aspect of history and neglects other aspects of human life.
2. This approach does not put emphasis on interrelationships of events in a given period.
3. If the topical approach is used, a large time chart of all the basic themes should be used constantly.
2.3.2 Chronological Approach
This approach spreads the whole course of history over the entire period of school instruction. Contents are taught in a chronological sequence year by year. In other words, the whole course of history is divided into certain marked stages called periods which have to be taught in chronological order. The ground once covered is never repeated. Indian history, for instance, can be divided into the Ancient, the Medieval, the Mughal, and the British period. Chronology helps to show how an event, a movement, a custom or an institution has developed into its present form. The idea behind this approach is that sections of history conform to the stages of mental development of man.
Advantages of Chronological Approach
1. This approach helps the student to see the natural development of the history of a particular country.
2. In the successive years of school instruction, pupils are introduced to new periods-periods efflorescent with new problems- and their interest in the subject is sustained. Every time a fresh ground is covered and there is no room for dullness and monotony to set in the process of instruction.
3. The students get a clear idea of the time factor in history.
4. The treatment provides an intensive study of the topic which lends itself to the use of interesting details.
Limitations of Chronological Approach
1. This approach is against the principles of psychology of teaching. If history is divided into periods, then it may happen that one period may be simple and the other may be very complex. Taking them chronologically it is just possible that we may take the complex first and the simple later which would be a serious violation of the teaching maxim- simple to complex.
2. Since history is not repeated under this arrangement, students are likely to forget a period which was studied at an earlier stage.
3. Under the chronological arrangement, a comprehensive treatment is not possible at every stage as the students do not possess the necessary comprehensive power to assimilate facts, events or principles.
4. Early school leavers or drop-outs fail to have an adequate knowledge of history of their country.
5. The strict adherence to chronology breaks up a topic into too many fragments and makes it difficult to understand.
6. The order of occurrence of events is the only principle followed for selecting material. There are no theories around which facts are grouped. It becomes difficult to give the pupils a sense of purpose or direction. The pupil does not work for anything except for completing the chapter.
2.3.3 Concentric Approach
The concentric approach was initiated by Pestalozzi. Under this approach the prescribed course of history is taught again and again with increasing fullness in every successive class, each time giving more and more details. The entire matter of history is taught every year, but the outline remains the same. Every year only the outline will be made detailed and addition will be made in it. In this way, the topics of knowledge remain the same, but the dimensions of knowledge keep on multiplying.
An extreme illustration of this approach is the teaching of history in pre-independence era. A full seven year course of history was divided into three stages. During the first three years, a general outline of the whole course was covered. In the next two years the same course was repeated with additional details. This was again repeated at the third stage in two years with the addition of still more details.
The concentric approach is nothing but devising a strategy that fosters continuous, unbroken learning of the subject matter of history through the elementary and secondary stages.
Advantages of Concentric Approach
1. It is based on the principles of ‘simple to complex’, ‘general to specific’.
2. It postulates that repetition makes learning effective. Limitations of Concentric Approach
1. Repetition of the subject matter is likely to make lessons dull and students feel little interest in learning the same facts again and again.
2. Pupils develop a sense of familiarity without the fullness of knowledge. Thus students fail to develop the actual sense of time and age. It becomes difficult for them to understand characteristics of time and different characters.
3. Full treatment of historical facts under this arrangement will be difficult as the entire course of history has to be gone through within the comparatively short period of a year or two.
2.3.4 Regressive Approach
The famous educational maxim, “go from the known and the familiar to unknown and the unfamiliar” lends support to this approach. Here we start from the present and work backwards. The past is studied as an outgrowth of the present. The teacher chooses a certain vital social or economic problem of today as a starting point or introduction, goes back to the origin of the problem in the remote past, again comes back to the period that immediately concerns him. Thus the teacher regresses to come forward again. We follow a chronological order in this treatment, but in the reverse direction. Present is studied in the light of the past. This approach impresses on the child’s mind, the essential connection between the present and the past by bringing out the truth that the present is only an evolution of the past.
Advantages of Regressive Approach
1. It emphasizes the true nature of history, that is, the present is more important to history than the past.
2. This arrangement enables the child to develop a better intelligent outlook on some of the familiar features of modern life.
3. Self activity on the part of the students is enlisted as they study the present events. Limitations of Regressive Approach
1. This approach completely reverses the chronological order which is the very soul of history.
2. The regressive approach cannot do justice to the study of the enriching aspects of history enshrined in arts and literature.
3. Problems of today may be discussed without a reference to the past and thus we are likely to ignore the past.
4. This approach demands too much from pupils. A liberal and correlated knowledge of the social sciences is needed to understand a contemporary problem. The young learner is not expected to posses such a fund of knowledge and in this manner.
Self Assessment Questions
2.4 Summary
A good curriculum for a particular class is the one which is convenient, well-planned, appropriate, presenting and sensible and have orderly appearance. History curriculum should be selected on the basis of the principles of achieving aims of teaching history, appropriate to the age and ability of pupils, functional relationship between the contents, wide and comprehensive curriculum, emphasis on national and world history, concentration and correlation and integration with the daily lives of the common man.
Theories for selecting subject matter for different stages are the Cultural Epoch Theory of Stanley Hall, Carlyle’s Biographical Approach and the Psychological Theory. Content in history can also be organised using the Topical approach, Chronological approach, Concentric approach and Regressive approach.
Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee and NCERT have recommended syllabi for different classes taking into consideration the different principles, theories,approaches and methods.
2.5 Unit End Questions
1) What principles would you bear in mind while framing curriculum in history?
2) Distinguish between Concentric and Chronological approaches of organizing history syllabus clearly bringing out the comparison between the two.
3) Discuss the merits and limitations of different theories for the selection of the subject matter for different stages.
4) Discuss the advantages and limitations of Topical and Regressive approaches of organizing the content of history.
5) Suggest suitable guidelines for organizing curriculum in history.
2.6 Suggested Readings
Chaudhry, K.P., Contents of History in Indian schools, New Delhi: Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1953;
Johnson,H., An Introduction to the History of Social Sciences in Schools, New York; macmillan, 1932;
Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Government of India Report of the Review Committee on the curriculum for the Ten-Year School, New Delhi, 1977;
National Council of Educational research and Training, The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School, New Delhi, 1975;
Pierce, B.L., Some Aspects of Social Studies in the Schools. Washington, D.C.: First Year Book of the National Council for the Social Studies, 1931;
Wilson, H.E.,The Social Studies Curriculum in the schools, Washington, D.C.: Fourth Year Book,1934.
UNIT III
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Narration cum Discussion Method
3.3 Project Method
3.4 Dramatization
3.5 Source Method
3.6 Let us sum up
3.0) Objectives
After reading this unit you will able to:
• State different methods of teaching history
• Describe the procedure of narration cum discussion method
• Explain the concept of project method
• Describe the steps of project method
• Explain the importance of dramatization technique in teaching history.
• Describe the source method of teaching history.
3.1) Introduction
Correct history teaching means not only providing the pupil a background of historical knowledge but also an insight into the meaning and significance of history and the ability to continue his studies for himself.
-T.S. Meheta-
The Secondary Education commission has rightly observed that “Even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remain dead unless quickened into life by the right methods of teaching by the right kinds of teachers.
There is no single method to successful teaching. The choice of a suitable method by a teacher depends upon many factors such as the learner, the nature of the subjects ,the facilities available and above all the attitude of the teacher.
A method of teaching arises out of the needs of the learner and learning situations. Therefore the same methods of teaching can not be same for all time and all situations. Even it can not be same for all teachers and all subjects.
Traditionally when we talk about methods of teaching we mean that what a teacher does in the class room to teach the students. But now the scene is totally changed. Methods of teaching are now associated with the learning activities of the students. For Example discussion method, project method, Laboratory method, source method, constructive approach, Inductive method, deductive method, co operative learning, communicative approach, narration, dramatization, storytelling method etc. So these are various methods, approaches and techniques use for teaching. The role of teacher is to select his own method of teaching according to his subject and students. There is no method which is universally applicable. In this unit we will discuss various methods which are used in teaching of history.
3.2 Narration cum Discussion method.
You know teaching should be a two way process in order to be successful. So the narration method & storey telling methods are not fulfilling this objective. Students are not getting opportunities to actively participate in this process of teaching. But this cannot be totally revamped from our teaching process. Therefore the narration cum discussion method originated which will be more beneficial than only individual methods of teaching.
The narration cum discussion method provides dual benefits of listening to teacher as well as participation of students. This method provides adequate scope for student’s participation in the selection of topic or problem presenting ideas, analyzing ideas through exchange of ideas and taking decision with suitable support material. Discussion is almost equally shared by pupils and teachers.
On the whole, truth is searched and conclusions are drawn through free exchange of opinions. Narration cum discussion is a group activity and a process of collective decision making.
3.2.1 Steps and procedures
Teaching of History through this method calls for systematic planning. The entire teaching – learning process is carried on mainly through three steps (1) Preparation (ii) Conduct of discussion and (iii) Evaluation.
1. Preparation
It is an important step in planning. The topic must be carefully selected and the teacher must be confident of the details of the theme. Points to be discussed should be informed to students earlier. The topic and questions may be written on the black board for this purpose. Both the teacher and students should be prepared for taking active part in the discussion.
II. Conduct of Discussion
This steps is the most significant part of teaching; it includes arrangement of seats, maintenance of discipline, initiation and presentation of the topic, students participation in a released, free and informal atmosphere. All students should be encouraged to participate in the discussion and express their own points of view without any hesitation and reservation. Such discussion will be a process of loud, as well as silent thinking, it is an experience in cooperation, not in competition.
III. Evaluation
This steps on discussion and narration aims at providing information, facts figures, removing doubts and difficulties, changing attitudes, developing interests and good qualities that are necessary for effective citizenship. All these objectives are evaluated at this stage and measures are taken for making up the deficiencies, if any.
Role of Teacher
The teacher has to play an important role in this teaching – learning process. He has to take initiative and all the steps that are found necessary for encouraging student’s participation. Success of this method largely depends on the better qualification, wide knowledge, varied skills, ample resourcefullness and favourable attitude of the teacher. The teacher has to direct all the activities of the class and co-ordinate their opinions and views express there on the topic. He has to bring about solution of the problems faced and truth out of all controversial arguments and counter arguments. He is required to play the role of a director or manger of the whole show and take all the steps for ensuring realization of learning objectives.
3.2.3 Advantages
1) This method of teaching is very suitable for higher classes.
2) It discourages rote– learning and encourages understanding and critical thinking
3) It enables students to discover facts, collect relevant information and clarify doubts.
4) It promotes academic work through joint and cooperative efforts.
5) It facilitates pupil’s participation and individual initiative.
6) It enables the teacher to identify potentiality of the students and provide favourable scope for its development.
7) It enhances attentiveness, interest speaking, capacity and self – evaluation.
3.2.4 Limitations
1) This method is not effective for junior class students.
2) It calls for immense earlier planning and preparation, which most of the teacher do not afford.
3) Without proper control & co-ordination over the discussion, it will be difficult to arrive at conclusion and may lead to wastage of time and energy.
Students gain sufficient knowledge through narration. The main aim of narration is to provide knowledge to students of indirect things where as discussion is an educational group activity in which teacher and the students talk over some topic. Narration cum discussion method provides knowledge about a problem or topic in which the students are actively involved and clarified about the topic.
Check your progress
Q. 1 What are the steps of narration cum discussion method?
Q. 2 Explain the merits and limitations of narration cum discussion method?
3.3 Project Method Origin and Significance
Project method is a natural, whole-hearted, problem solving and purposeful activity carried to completion in a social environment. It is the practical outcome of the pragmatic educational philosophy of John Dewey, a well-known American philosopher and educationist. It was developed and perfected by William Kilpatrick of the University of Columbia. It is a revolt against the traditional, bookish and passive environment of the school wherein children as obedient masses are carefully drilled and spoon-fed with unrelated and disconnected facts, watertight compartments and pigeon hole time-tables.
Definition of the Project
1. Ballard: A project is a bit of real that has been imported into the school.
2. Burton: The problem is a project which results is doing. The motor element is not what makes the activity a project, but the problem solving of a practical nature accompanying the activity.
3. J.A. Stevenson: A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.
4. Snedden: Project is a unit of educative work in which the most prominent feature is some form of positive and concrete achievement.
5. W.W. Charters: In the topical organisation principles are learned first while in the projects the problems are proposed which demand in the solution the development of principles by the learner as needed.
Characteristics of a project:
A project has the following characteristics
1. Problematic act.
2. Purposeful activity.
3. Whole-hearted activity.
4. Activity in a natural setting.
5. Activity in a social environment.
6. Bit of real life introduced in school.
7. Problem solving of a practical nature.
8. Positive and concrete achievement.
9. Activity through which solutions of various problems are found out.
3.3.1 Principles of Project method
In project method one should follow the following principles:
1. The principle of purpose: Knowledge of purpose is a great stimulus and motivates the child to realize his goal. The chid must have an idea ‘why is he doing certain things?’ Purpose motivates learning. Interest cannot be aroused by aimless and meaningless activities.
2. The principle of activity: Children are active by nature. They love activity. The instincts of curiosity, construction, pugnacity and herd make them active by nature and learn things by doing. Physical as well as mental activities are to be provided to them.
3. The principle of Experience: Experience is the best teacher. What is real must be experienced. The children learn new facts and information through experience.
4. The principle of Social experience: The child is a social being and we have to prepare him for social life. Training for a corporate life must be given to him in his childhood. In the project method, the child works in groups. The project method is a method of educating the child and therefore it must also be real. Real life situations should be presented in the life of the school.
5. The principle of freedom: The desire for an activity must be spontaneous and not forced by the teacher. The child should be free from imposition, restrictions or obstructions so that he may express himself fully and freely.
6. The principle of reality: Human life is itself a big project. Since education is a preparation for life, we must create real life situations in the school. In Project Method the pupils are provided with opportunities to exercise their powers in real life situations. Hence, they feel genuinely interested in such activities.
7. The principle of utility: The knowledge gained through activity must be useful and practical. Experiences obtained through projects ensure utility because they are carried out under natural conditions. As the method gives useful training and full satisfaction to pupils they feel that their efforts have not gone wasted because their activity must end in something concrete which is useful from educational point of view.
3.3.2 Steps in the Project Method:
The teacher & students should follow the following steps in the project method.
1. Providing a situation: A project should not be forced upon pupils. The teacher should provide a situation according to the interest and aptitude of the pupils which may give them a spontaneous urge to carry it out .Situation may be provided by conversation on different topics, discussions on pictures, buildings or cities, by telling stories or taking out children on excursions and educational tours and trips.
2. Choosing a Project: Only such a project should be selected as may satisfy some real need of the pupils and is for the good of all of them. They must feel that the project is their own. In the words of Dr. Kilpatrick, “The part of the pupils and the part of the teacher in most of school work depends largely on who does the purposing. It is particularly the whole thing.” The project must be chosen according to the capacities of pupils and the expenses involved.
3. Planning: After a good deal of discussion planning is to be done by the pupils under the guidance of the teacher, who offer suggestions. The entire plan should be put in black and white by the pupils in their project book before working on that plan.
4. Executing: Now teacher should encourage the pupils to put it into practice. He should ask the pupils to assign duties and distribute work among themselves, according to their individual interests and capacity. Each child must be given some work to do, for the successful completion of the project. They should be asked to work in cooperation with one another till the project is complete.
5. Judging or Evaluating: After the completion of the project, the students should be asked to review their work. They should note down their mistakes, if any, and see whether they had proceeded, according to the plan. It is sort of self-criticism which is a very important form of training and should never be neglected.
5. Recording: The pupils should maintain a project-book to put down a complete record of all the activities, connected with the project. This record will include the choice of the project, its planning, discussions held, duties assigned, references and books consulted, information gathered, difficulties felt, experiences gained, guidance sought etc. Important points for future reference and guidance are also to be noted down.
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Characteristics of a Successful Project:
1) Usefulness: It must be individually and socially valuable and must have a practical aim.
2) Maximum Activities: It should provide activities of various types suitable to pupils undertaking the project. It should be able to draw the best from them.
3) Availability of Resources: The material connected with the project, should be readily available in or in the neighborhood of the school. The pupils should be able to handle it without difficulty.
4) Economy: The project should give the best of results in the shortest possible time and with the least possible expense. It should not be expensive.
5) Best Experience: The project must fulfill some educational purpose. It should provide experiences of a very high standard, including social.
3.3.4. Example of Project in History
A Unlimited number of projects may be used in teaching history including field trips, school elections, making card-board, clay or wood models of various objects, writing play based upon a period of history, preparing scripts for radio programmes, writing a song or a poem inspired by a historical event, dramatizing events, making displays for the bulletin board, preparing pageants, arranging community surveys and starting a collection of old coins, stamps, specimens and other such things for the scrap-books and for the school museum.
3.3.5 Advantages of Project Method.
1) Based on the laws of learning: Project method works in accordance with the psychological laws of learning, such as the law of readiness, the law of exercise and the law of effect.
i. The law of readiness: It requires the child’s mind to be ready for acquiring knowledge. The planning and selection of the project, prepares the child’s mind for the work, he is about to do.
ii. The law of exercise: It requires the child to practice what he has learnt.
iii. The law of effect: It requires that learning should be accompanied by happiness and satisfaction.
2) Learning by living: Project method is based not only on learning by doing but also on learning by living. The actual doing of things gives effective knowledge. By actually doing and achieving things in the project, the child gets pleasure and satisfaction. All this makes the study of history interesting and effective.
3) Economical: As the project is of the children’s own choice and interest, it is completed speedily. It gives best of results in the shortest possible time and with the least of wastage of money and energy.
4) Training for democratic way of life: As the pupils work in co-operation with one another for a common purpose they acquire foresight, power of judgment, independence of thought and action, initiative, responsibility, resourcefulness, tolerance, self respect, etc. These useful social habits lead to real training in citizenship and a democratic way of life.
5) Dignity of labour: Project upholds the dignity of labour as pupils are required to do all types of work with their own hand, including manual work.
6) Correlation: Knowledge gained as a whole in its natural setting. All the subjects are correlated and there is no isolation of learning in water-tight compartments.
7) Education according to real conditions of life: The projects are related to everyday needs and experiences of the child. As various subjects are taught to the extent, they are applicable in practical life knowledge gained is real, practical and useful, leading to the formation of proper habits and attitudes.
8) No cramming and memory work: Learning is effective as it does not come as the finished thought-product of the teacher. It comes as a by-product of useful activity. Children learn by doing things themselves. They learn the problem solving attitude and exercise thinking and reasoning power.
9) Arousing individual interests and skills: Project activities have very broad range. Every pupil finds a challenge somewhere for himself.
10) Individual learning: As the project is pursued by the pupil a lot of incidental learning takes places. To attain fair accuracy and success in the project, the pupils seek answers and solutions to many questions and problems which are covered in a text book.
3.3.6 Limitations of Project methods.
1) Expensive: For its successful completion project requires a lot of material, which may not be easily available locally. Therefore, ordinary schools cannot afford to adopt this method as they are not in a position to spend so much project requires a lot of money material and time, which can be seldom snatch out of busy school programme.
2) Haphazard and scrappy knowledge: The project method disturbs the essential logical and chronological arrangement of teaching history. Lose ends of knowledge are left here and there, if work in different subjects is done according to this plan. Certain portions of the subjects do not come into the project at all. Therefore, this method may be taken up only occasionally.
3) Too much strain on the teacher: Project method expects too much from the teacher. Every teacher cannot be efficient in all subjects, nor as intelligent and resourceful as to suggest suitable projects and impart knowledge through them in a correlated manner.
4) Lack of suitable text books: Suitable text books of history written on project method lines are also not available. This adds to the difficulties of the teacher.
5) Disrupting school work: lf the school is to be run on project method is not possible to follow any fixed time table. In the absence of any fixed curriculum, the prescribed syllabus in various subjects is seldom finished in time. It is possible only if usual procedure of teaching is followed.
6) No Balanced learning for all pupils: Some more developed and capable children are inclined to take all the responsibility upon them. Keeping others in the background they want to do all the work. This provides ample opportunities to students to look on and do very little. All the pupils are expected to engage themselves in activities with equal seriousness and zeal.
3.3.7 Suggestions for use.
However, most of the disadvantages of project method would disappear, when modem concepts are accepted. Pupil’s growth and development are much more important in the educational process than the memorisation of facts, forgotten too soon. In the project procedure, pupil’s co-operation in planning and execution is almost secured. Both the individual and the group enjoy an immeasurable satisfaction and pleasure, at the successful conclusion of the project. If utilized in accordance with class desires and
teacher’s aptitude and interest, this method gives excellent results. However, method is not an educational panacea. The projects are rich in possibilities for teaching only when combined with direct learning. Systematic study, demonstration experiments and discussion on development of subject-matter. It should be used as a supplement to classroom teaching. The projects may be carried on for half the day and for the remaining half, there may be class-teaching in essential subjects. Home projects may be given to individual students or groups of students, living in the neighbourhood. The teacher may complete the first two steps and the last step in the class. Execution may be done at home.
3.4 Dramatization
Dramatization has been described as ‘a synthetic art’, involving the purposive coordination and control of the delicate organs of speech and muscles of the body combined with a sense of rhythm, with a view to free and intelligent expression of emotions and ideas.
Dramatization is one of the most important tools in the teaching of history. It is not only a co- curricular activity but also a very useful teaching device. The introduction of this device in teaching is useful due to the following reason.
1. Gives Reality and Concreteness to the Learning Situation
It makes the abstract ideas concrete and real. The story of Rana Pratap told verbally does not make such a lasting effect on the mind as when it is presented to them in the form of a living drama. In that case, a Rana suffering and sacrificing, struggling and striving for a very high ideal is just before the pupils and his every action is concrete and real.
2. Serves as an Audio-Visual Aid
t
A drama is just like an audio-visual aid. The learners visua lize the learning situations and hear about it at the same time. As many sense organs cocperate in receiving the impression, therefore, the effects are deep and lasting.
3. Selected Learning Situations
A drama in teaching presents selected learning situations which are more valuable than ordinary episodes which we see every day. The life in itself is a drama and all the people around us are actors in this big play. But all the actors in this drama may not have an educative value for children while some of them are definitely undesirable in their effects. But in our planned educational dramas we present the most desirable things only.
4. Concentrated Effect
The movements in a drama are very quick. Something good of the whole life of somebody may be put before the audience in a short time of three hours. Good things come swiftly one after the other in a concentrated form and therefore the effects are also very quick and deep.
5. Opportunity of Expression
The urge of expression is very strong in childhood and even
afterwards. Dramatization offers opportunity to the children for this purpose.
6. Training of Organization
Children organise such activities themselves and therefore they are trained in the traits of leadership and responsibility.
7. Development of Social Virtues
Children learn to co-operate and work for others in such activities.
8. Motivations for learning
Children are motivated to learn effectively. They prepare their own parts allowed to them in the drama thoroughly. They study the parts of others also to be able to give continuity to the story. In this way. every actor prepares the whole study thoroughly. On the other hands, the audience also hear and try to understand everything spoken with a great interest.
9. A Boon for the Withdrawan
Dramatization is a boon for the shy and withdrawn child. He gets opportunities to come up and to overcome his feelings of inferiority.
Kinds of dramatization
Various types of drama can be played ranging from simple action to well rehearsed full length play.These forms of drama are:
Full length play The Pantomine The Pageant The Tableau Puppetry Advantages:
Advantages-
1) Dramatic art affords innumerable opportunities for the correlation of a large number of subjects.
2) In the preparation of roles the students indirectly and unconsciously improve their speech habits and language.
3. A systematic study of historical events is made when pageants of the life of great persons are prepared i.e. pageant on the life of
Buddha, Chandragupta, Vikramaditya, Gandhiji, etc.
4. Preparing costumes suiting different ages, thus, children come to know about the dresses of the people during different periods of history.
5. Dramatics add to the geographical knowledge of the students.
6. Carpentry and other mechanical arts facilitate the work of construction of the stage.
7. Dance and music add to the beauty of a drama.
8. Drama has great social value. It is a cooperative enterprise and develops qualities of cooperation and social understanding. It helps in fostering spirit of cooperation among the students, In various school functions dramas form the chief items of the programme. Every student works to the best of his capacity for the honour of the school. Dramatics afford the students many opportunities for training in team work.
9. They are very helpful in providing the students with opportunities for the release of the inhibitions to which they are subjected by the conventions of society.
10. Students of diverse aptitudes get chances to choose items for which they are best suited and satisfy their urges, e.g., self-expression through the various activities of a drama.
Conditions for Success
1. Rehearsals: A number of rehearsals bring grace and success to the play when it is staged. Pupils should prepare as much stage material as they can.
2. Roles: Children should be encouraged to write their own plays. The usual participants in this activity should be given opportunities to play different roles. The same pupils as far as possible should, however, not be allowed to play the role of a villian.
3. Selection of play: (i) Plays should depict the evils of the social customs.
(ii) They should have a literary value. (iii) The students should be able to understand and appreciate the play. (iv)It should also have entertainment value. (v) It should be free from objectional subject-matter (vi)There should be novelty in the play.
3.5 Source Method
The study and use of original material and original sources called the Source Method of teaching and learning give a much better understanding of history than any other method.
3.5.1 Classification of sources according to traces.
Historical sources are “traces” left behind in the past. A historian tries to construct a systematic account of the past event with the help of historical sources classified as follows:
1. Archaeological sources
2. Literary sources
3. Oral tradition.
1. Archaeological Sources:
(i) Monumental Finds: Building images pottery and terracotta figures and other antiquities are monumental finds. Ancient buildings, sculptures, paintings, potteries and terracotta figures, throw light on the type of civilization of the period, to which they belong. The Archaeological Department of the Govt. of India has excavated a large number of sites at various places in India, which provide considerable material of historical value. With the help of this material, the historians have reconstructed the history of ancient and medieval India.
(ii) Epigraphics: India is very rich in such authentic sources. Consisting of inscription of stones, pillars, rocks, copper-plates bricks, seals, terracotta and images. Epigraphic give us concrete evidence for the various phases of Indian history.
(iii) Numismatics: Old coins are very helpful in constructing ancient history. The extent of the kingdoms of particular ancient Indian kings, the length of their regions and the succession of different rulers of the same dynasty, are known through these sources. Coins also throw light on the economic and religious conditions of their times. They also illustrate political and commercial relations with neighbours in the past.
2. Literary Sources: These are as follows:
(i) Sacred or religious literature: In India this includes the four Vedas describing social and political life of the Indo-Aryans. The Kalpasutras are manuals of rituals throwing light on the development of sciences of Geometry and Architecture in ancient India. The Ramayana and Mahabharata and the’ Puranas throw light on the social and political conditions of the Aryans settled in nonhein India as well as the history of several dynasties. The saced literaiui e includes the Tripitakas, the Buddhist and the Jam canonical literature.
(ii) Secular literature: It includes novels, dramas, poems, books on medicine, grammar and astronomy, biographies ,autobiographies, travellers, accounts, personal diaries and official orders and despatches. Indian examples are Shakuntala of Kalidasa, Mudra Rakshasa of Visakhadatta, Artha-shastra of
Kautilya, Ashtadhyayi of Panini, Babar Nama of Babar, Tuzak-i-Jahangir; of
Jalfangir, Akbar Nama of Abul Fazal, Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 and official despatches of various Governors and Viceroys, treatise and official reports.
(iii) Foreign Accounts:The accounts of foreign travellers to India include the accounts of Greek writers like Herodotus, Nearchus and Megasthenese, the Chinese pilgrims like Fa-hien, Hieun Tsang and Itsing and the Arab scholar, Alberuni. These form an important source of Indian history.
3. Oral Tradition: The noble deeds and heroic exploits of local heroes may not be mentioned in a general history of India but they live on in the oral form. Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan, are mostly based on the local tradition. For the reconstruction of the earliest history of India, one has to depend on the tradition of the ancient tribal people found only in oral form.
Classification of Primary and Secondary Sources according to data
1. Primary sources: Also called original sources these include primary data, the accounts prepared by persons directly connected with an event or the eye-witnesses to it, like official orders, treaties, laws, autobiographies and personal memories.
2. Secondary sources: Known as secondary data these are prepared by those persons who were not directly connected with the actual happening but -who prepared their accounts with the help of eye-witnesses, like standard historical works, based on original accounts. The teacher should select and use them very carefully for class-room purposes. As some of these might have been based on personal prejudices or bias. He should use only reliable and
authentic sources.
3.5.2. .Methods of Utilising Sources.
1 Demonstration: A teacher can best convince his pupil’s sources by giving a demonstration of how to utilise. By reading a particular passage from the original source, supporting or illustrating his point or throwing additional light on his opinion he should make it clear to his pupils that source material is to be employed at appropriate times. This will motivate his pupils to go through some such sources for clarifying certain controversial issues or for arriving at truth about a certain point.
3. Assigned reading: The teacher can introduce the use of source by assigning selected passages to be read by selected students, selected passages should be interesting and immediately connected with the topic in hand.
4. Problem solving: Problems can best be solved with the help of sources. The pupils discover and correct errors in the text-books and in other secondary accounts if any.
Thus, sources can be utilized in the beginning of the lesson, during the course of the lesson as well as after finishing the lesson. Certain useful extracts from the original or secondary sources may be selected for introducing or developing the lesson. Students may also be asked to write answers to some questions, based on those sources. The main aim is to help students to cultivate a proper skill for their use and to develop the habit of self-study.
3.5.3. Difficulties in utilizing original sources
1. Sources of real value are not available: In India original sources of real worth, suitable especially for school students, are too scanty and too disjoined. Efforts have not been made to edit and compile source books, suitable for school students.
2. Difficulty of language: Almost all the original sources of historical or cultural value are in foreign languages. School children cannot be expected to deal with long passages in English,
Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic or Persian, the languages in which most of the original sources are available. Relevant and short extracts from contemporary documents in the pupils’ mother tongue alone serve the desired purpose and these are seldom available.
3. Conflict among contemporary writers: Like all other writers, source writers also have their own prejudices, faults, preference and Limitations. According to their own points of view authors of different sources give different account of events or movements during the same period. Lost in the maze of conflicting views about the same event or movement, the students feel that they cannot solve all the problems through the source method.
3.5.4. Advantages of Source Method
1. Gathering reliable evidence: Students using source, realize the difference between a guess and assertion, between the exact words, spoken or written by a person and what someone else has said about that person’s statements. Thus, they gather reliable evidence.
2. A sense of reality: The use of sources gives a sense of reality if properly handled and utilized. Source accounts enrich and supplement the text book account.
3. Training in reasoning and judgment: The use of source develops one’s critical faculty of reading, thinking, reasoning and judgment. It teaches a person to examine carefully before
arriving at final decision. Its application can be transferred profitably to other situations in one’s life.
4. Functional Knowledge: Learning become interesting and functional in this method. Dramatization is one of the most important tools in the teaching of history. It is not only a co- curricular activity but also a very useful teaching device. The introduction of this device in teaching is useful due to the following reason.
1. Gives Reality and Concreteness to the Learning Situation
It makes the abstract ideas concrete and real. The story of Rana Pratap told verbally does not make such a lasting effect on the mind as when it is presented to them in the form of a living drama. In that case, a Rana suffering and sacrificing, struggling and striving for a very high ideal is just before the pupils and his every action is concrete and real.
2. Serves as an Audio-Visual Aid
A drama is just like an audio-visual aid. The learners visua lize the learning situations and hear about it at the same time. As many sense organs cocperate in receiving the impression, therefore, the effects are deep and lasting.
3. Selected Learning Situations
A drama in teaching presents selected learning situations which are more valuable than ordinary episodes which we see every day. The life in itself is a drama and all the people around us are actors in this big play. But all the actors in this drama may not have an educative value for children while some of them are definitely undesirable in their effects. But in our planned educational dramas we present the most desirable things only.
4. Concentrated Effect
The movements in a drama are very quick. Something good of the whole life of somebody may be put before the audience in a short time of three hours. Good things come swiftly one after the other in a concentrated form and therefore the effects are also very quick and deep.
5. Opportunity of Expression
The urge of expression is very strong in childhood and even
afterwards. Dramatization offers opportunity to the children for this purpose.
6. Training of Organization
Children organise such activities themselves and therefore they are trained in the traits of leadership and responsibility.
7. Development of Social Virtues
Children learn to co-operate and work for others in such activities.
8. Motivations for learning
Children are motivated to learn effectively. They prepare their own parts allowed to them in the drama thoroughly. They study the parts of others also to be able to give continuity to the story. In this way. every actor prepares the whole study thoroughly. On the other hands, the audience also hear and try to understand everything spoken with a great interest.
9. A Boon for the Withdrawan
Dramatization is a boon for the shy and withdrawn child. He gets opportunities to come up and to overcome his feelings of inferiority.
3.6 Let us Sum up
Teaching history means not only providing knowledge but to give an insight into the meaning and significance of history which will develop the ability of the students to study for himself.
Various methods and techniques for teaching history helps in this direction. In this unit we have studied the following methods and techniques.
Narration cum discussion method:
This method helps to make the descriptive material simple, smooth, clear and unambiguous. It provides opportunity for exchange of ideas. It enhances attentiveness, interest, speaking capacity and self evaluation.
Project Method: This method helps the students to learn by doing in the school environment. The activity of the students has been given importance in this method. Pupils are active and learning is joyful & interesting in this method if the proper procedures and steps discussed will be guided and followed by the teacher and students.
Dramatisation: It is a technique used in the history teaching in the form of drama in which students enact scenes of history by dialogue & by wearing the dresses. This method helps the students to express their emotions and ideas freely and intelligently.
Source Method: Pupil learns from the original materials by this method. The source may be primary and secondary. Sources like monuments, coins, seals, religions, literature, foreign accounts, secular literature all comes under:-
• Archaeological Sources
• Literary sources and
• Oral tradition
Students get functional knowledge by this method.
Every method has its own merits and limitations. But we can minimize the limitations of any method by using a variety of methods in our teaching. The teaching can be interesting and lively by using various methods and technologies as per the level of the students.
Unit End Questions:
1. What is a Project? What steps you will follow to carry out a project.
2. What is the value of utilizing original sources in teaching history? Explain the difficulties in following this method in teaching.
3. Write Short Notes on:
a) Types of sources
b) Merits of Narration cum Discussion method
c) Characteristics of a project
d) Conditions for success of a drams
e) Principles of project method.
Bibliography
Dr. Bhatia R.L “Contemporary Teaching of History”, 2004, Surjeet Publications, Delhi
Yadav Nirmal “Teaching of History”, 2004
Amol Publications Pvt. Ltd, Delhi
Dr.Vibh Nigan
Dr. J.K. Verma “Teaching of History” 2009
Dr. Gursaran Das Tyagi Shri Vinod Pustak Mandir Agra
S.D Khanna
V.K Saxena “Teaching of History with
T.P. Lamba lesson plans made easy” 2005
V. Murthy Doaba House Delhi
History method
UNIT – IV
Modern Trends in History Teaching
UNIT STRUCTURE:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Critical Thinking
4.3.1 Concept of Critical Thinking
4.3.2 Need for Skill of Critical Thinking
4.3.3 Strategies for Development of Critical Thinking
4.3.4 Importance of Critical Thinking
4.4 Using Sources
4.4.1 types of Sources
4.4.2 Importance of Using Sources
4.5 Teaching Correct Events
4.5.1 Bias
4.5.2 Overcoming Biases
4.6 Developing International Understanding
4.6.1 Concept of International Understanding
4.6.2 Role of History in Developing International Understanding
4.7 Teacher’s Guide Book
4.7.1 Concept of Teacher’s Guide Book
4.7.2 Advantages
4.8 Suggested Reading
4.9 Questions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that the role of education is undergoing one of its most significant changes in recent history. Social studies have to play a significant role in development of young minds capable to live intelligently. The future role of teachers is rapidly changing from providers to moderators of knowledge. The changes in the field of education directed in use of different strategies in teaching history.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will able to-
• Understand concept and need of critical thinking
• Realise the strategies for developing critical thinking
• Identify different type of sources and its importance in teaching history
• Identify the biases and overcome it
• Understand the role of history in developing international understanding
• Realise importance of teacher’s guide book
4.3 CRITICAL THINKING
"Important abilities and qualities of mind are acquired through the study of History. They are particularly valuable for the graduate as citizen and are readily transferable to many occupations and careers."
Apart from being extremely enjoyable and enabling students to learn about the past - that is, to understand the past and, through it, come to a far better understanding of the present - history also offers students the opportunity to acquire and improve on many of the key skills which have been identified as a priority for Higher Education after consultation with employers. History has ability to promote understanding between cultures and between national traditions. History places particular stress on the development of independent thought and analytical skills.
4.3.1 CONCEPT OF CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century. Socrates discovered by a method of probing questioning that people could not rationally justify their confident claims to knowledge. He established the importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not only of what is said but of what is done as well. His method of questioning is now known as "Socratic Questioning" and is the best known critical thinking teaching strategy. In his mode of questioning, Socrates highlighted the need in thinking for clarity and logical consistency.
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skilfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them.
“Critical thinking” generally refers to the examination of ideas that goes on at the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. The term critical, despite its somewhat negative connotations, refers to the evaluative thinking characteristic of highest levels of thought and reflects the importance of doing so, as well.
Much critical thinking involves problem solving. Many problem-solving models have been formulated, some specific to a particular academic field, some more all-purpose. Regardless of the model and how many steps are in it, virtually all begin by seeking a clear statement of the problem. In solving any problem or indeed in working successfully with any concept, we must first define it as precisely and specifically as possible. We should do this by asking students to state exactly what they are doing on a particular task or assignment and why they are being asked to do it. Getting the student to articulate the problem constitutes the first important step in effective problem solving and often begins to bring the solution into focus for them.
Once a problem or idea has been clearly identified, the student must be encouraged to talk it through. Students should be encouraged to look for more than one answer--the more the better, in fact. At other times, the tutee may not be problem solving per se, but trying to understand and work with a concept. Here too the tutor can use questioning strategies to assist
the tutee. The questions will vary depending on the subject area, the level of the student’s understanding of the subject, and the task. To move the student through progressively more demanding levels of thinking, the tutor should “pull” or “draw” knowledge from the tutee by framing questions which will elicit the desired kind of thinking.
4.3.2 NEED FOR SKILL OF CRITICAL THINKING
• For decision making process
• For creative and practical solutions
• For developing scientific attitude
4.3.3 STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL THINKING
• Provide different sources to analyse and interpret
• Use of Social Inquiry method will help students to analyse the problem and to come up with the solution for solving the same
• Organize debates: ask students to take sides on an issue, choose groups of 2 or 3 to brains torm, then have them present their positions in front of the class.
• Use counter‐factual questions: ʺBut what if...?ʺ “Why not…?”
• Encourage discovery rather than memorization: give problem‐solving assignments
• Have them organize and classify a group of short documents by points of view.
• Use Socratic questioning: ʺWhat precisely do you mean?ʺ ʺHow do you know?ʺ ʺWhat is your reason?ʺ ʺWhat else has to be true for that to be so?ʺ etc.
• Talk less; give them time to think about what you’ve said .
• Promote collaboration: have small groups solve problems and adopt positions
4.3.4 IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING
The student are able to:
• Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviours, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences.
• Consider multiple perspectives of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears.
• Analyse cause-and-effect relationships bearing in mind multiple causation including
(a) the importance of the individual in history; (b) the influence of ideas, human interests, and beliefs; and (c) the role of chance, the accidental and the irrational.
• Draw comparisons across eras and regions in order to define enduring issues as well as large-scale or long-term developments that transcend regional and temporal boundaries.
• Distinguish between unsupported expressions of opinion and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence.
• Compare competing historical narratives.
• Challenge arguments of historical inevitability by formulating examples of historical contingency, of how different choices could have led to different consequences.
• Hold interpretations of history as tentative, subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached.
• Evaluate major debates among historians concerning alternative interpretations of the past.
• Hypothesize the influence of the past, including both the limitations and opportunities made possible by past decisions.
4.4 USING SOURCES
A source is anything that has been left behind by the past. It might be a document, but it might alternatively be a building or a picture or a piece of ephemera – a train ticket perhaps or a plastic cup. They are called 'sources' because they provide us with information which can add to the sum of our knowledge of the past.
History as the subject of study is more or less at the mercy of the sources. The past can neither easily be observed directly nor can it be recalled. Historians get their information from two different kinds of sources: primary and secondary. Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources.
4.4.1 TYPES OF SOURCES PRIMARY SOURCES
A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event. Primary sources give us first hand, you-are-there insights into the past. They are also the most important tools an historian has for developing an understanding of an event. Primary sources serve as the evidence an historian uses in developing
an interpretation and in building an argument to support that interpretation. Primary sources provide a window into the past—unfiltered access to the record of artistic, social, scientific and political thought and achievement during the specific period under study, produced by people who lived during that period. Bringing young people into close contact with these unique, often profoundly personal, documents and objects can give them a very real sense of what it was like to be alive during a long-past era.
Some Examples:
• ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS: Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records
• CREATIVE WORKS: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art
• RELICS OR ARTIFACTS: Pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings Examples of primary sources include:
• Diary of Anne Frank - Experiences of a Jewish family during WWII
• The Constitution of India
• Coins of Mughal period
• Forts of Shivaji Maharaj
SECONDARY SOURCES :
A secondary source is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere. Secondary sources involve generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information.
Examples of some secondary sources are books, newspapers, pamphlets and encyclopaedias.
Example:
• PUBLICATIONS: Textbooks, magazine articles, histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopaedias
Examples of secondary sources include:
• A journal/magazine article which interprets or reviews previous findings
• A history textbook
4.4.2 IMPORTANCE OF USING SOURCES:
1. Engage students
Primary sources help students relate in a personal way to events of the past and promote a deeper understanding of history as a series of human events. Because primary sources are snippets of history, they encourage students to seek additional evidence through research. First-person accounts of events helps make them more real, fostering active reading and response.
2. Develop critical thinking skills
In analyzing sources, students move from concrete observations and facts to questioning and making inferences about the materials. Questions of creator bias, purpose, and point of view may challenge students’ assumptions.
3. Construct knowledge
Inquiry into sources encourages students to wrestle with contradictions and compare multiple sources that represent differing points of view, confronting the complexity of the past. Students construct knowledge as they form reasoned conclusions, base their conclusions on evidence, and connect sources to the context in which they were created, synthesizing information from multiple sources. Integrating what they glean from comparing sources with what they already know, and what they learn from research, allows students to construct content knowledge and deepen understanding.
4. First hand Knowledge:
Primary sources provides first-hand knowledge to the students. It helps students to understand the events in history.
5. To consider different points of view in analysis:
In analyzing primary sources, students move from concrete observations and facts to inferences about the materials. “Point of view” is one of the most important inferences that can be drawn.
6. To understand the continuum of history:
Students come to understand that we all participate in making history every day, leaving behind primary source documentation hence may examine as a record of “the past.” The immediacy of first-person accounts of events is compelling to most students.
7. To acquire empathy for the human condition:
Primary sources help students relate personally to events of the past, gaining a deeper understanding of history as a series of human events.
4.5 TEACHING CORRECT EVENTS
History is not really about the past. It is about the present. The past is not about us and it is better buried behind. Rather, history may be the only option we have toward understanding the present. Young people today cannot relate their present-day predicaments with events of long ago. Most students find history boring and stale. Without proper orientation, they cannot find anything in history useful to make their life more meaningful. Good history teachers should be good storytellers. The story they tell should be powerful enough to move them into thinking about themselves and about their country. As we do not teach history correctly, we reap the kind of society we have today. We seemed to have been trapped in a deep and murky mud hole because we do not learn anything from history. As social studies teachers are responsible for ensuring that students have proper exposure to events. Connecting the current events to the study
of history in the classroom can help bridge that gap between study and reality, between the present and the past. The biasness is found while teaching events in history.
4.5.1 BIAS
Bias is an inclination of temperament or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective and a refusal to even consider the possible merits of alternative points of view.
Merriam Webster: A tendency to believe that some people, ides etc. are better than others that usually result in treating some people unfairly.
Oxford dictionary: Inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair
People may be biased toward an individual, a race, a religion, a social class, or a political party. Biased means one-sided, lacking a neutral viewpoint, not having an open mind. Bias can come in many forms and is often considered to be synonymous with prejudice. No country is free from biases. The biases are seen in behaviour, writings and can easily creep into textbooks. All subjects could carry biased statements; however, the history textbook is generally an easy target for bias to enter. And hence as a teacher of history one needs to be extra sensitive to detect bias in the textbook. There are different types of biases: Gender bias, Cultural bias, Religious bias, Racial bias, Caste bias , Class bias, Political bias. Many countries and states have guidelines against bias in education. Eg.In 1980, the council on Interracial Books for Children published the book Guidelines for selecting Bias- Free Textbooks and storybooks.
History in the New NCERT Textbooks: A Report and an Index of Errors by Irfan Habib, Suvira Jaiswal, and Aditya Mukherjee; Indian History Congress, Kolkata, 2003; shows the numerous prejudices history books carry. They have quoted an example from a social studies textbook for the ninth-grade- "Problems of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes," the authors say: "Of course, their ignorance, illiteracy and blind faith are to be blamed for lack of progress because they fail to realize the importance of education in life."
4.5.2 OVERCOMING BIASES:
• Review school textbooks and identify each of these forms. Then think of the ways to remove the bias and create more equitable textbooks.
• Understand the concept of bias, prejudice and stereotypes
• Read various texts to understand and interpret historical accounts
• Learn simple ways to detect bias- inflammatory language, one sided view, falsified view, making larger claims.
• Inform students about the bias manners
• Be careful in use of language while discussing sensitive issues.
4.6 DEVELOPING INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING
Today distance between countries have been annihilated, physical barriers removed and no nation can survive alone. The world has come much closer so sense of world citizenship has become as imperative as that of national citizen. History should endeavour to give the students not only a sense of National patriotism and of National Heritage, but also a keen and lively sense of the world unity and world citizenship.”
4.6.1 CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING
In our rapidly changing society an urgent need exists for schools to address and infuse global awareness into curriculum instruction. Students are increasingly confronted with many issues that require a global education focus. According to Kirkwood (2001), these students will face a new world order thereby creating a need to acquire a global education. He states:“Their daily contacts will include individuals from diverse ethnic, gender, linguistic, racial, and
socioeconomic backgrounds. They will experience some of history's most serious health problems, inequities among less-developed and more-developed nations, environmental deterioration, overpopulation transnational migrations, ethnic nationalism, and the decline of the nation-state.” The globally educated people are those who possess high-tech skills, broad interdisciplinary knowledge about the contemporary world, and adaptability, flexibility, and world mindedness to participate effectively in the globalized world. Therefore, the teacher needs to strive for and possess the above characteristics in order to validate her/himself as an educated person of the 21st century.
Walter H.C.: “International understanding is the ability to observe originality and objectively appraise the conduct of conduct of men everywhere to each irrespective of nationality or culture to which they belong”
“International understanding implies a noble idea of world peace. It means one world family of man”
“International understanding is ability to observe originality and appraise the conduct of men everywhere to each irrespective of the nationality or culture to which they belong.”
4.6.2 ROLE OF HISTORY IN DEVELOPING INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING:
The role of history in the secondary school curriculum is of vital importance in education. The subject matter of history directly relate to the organisation and development of human society. It is teaching of history can enhance the knowledge, attitude and skills to foster the ability of the child to understand the world problems, to promote world understanding and promote universal brotherhood.
Following strategies could be followed to develop international understanding: A] Study of historical personalities:
The historical personalities could be selected from the various countries such as Sun Yet Sen from China, Karl Marx from USSR, and Mahatma Gandhi from India etc. It will help in development of a world outlook. The students will understand the work done by great personalities in their respective countries to solve the problems faced by them.
B] Study of various Religions, cultures:
Every religion stresses on the brotherhood, mutual cooperation, equity of man. The fundamentals of each religion if properly understood by the students will bring unity, bind people in common pursuit, develop tolerance, and understand each other’s believes. The knowledge of various culture will enrich students. The emphasis on similarities among the cultures will help in develop bonding with others. It will help them to inculcate the great cultural value among them. It will impress on the minds of the students how human cultures have developed and inventions and discoveries taken place and development in art literature and science are common heritage of mankind and not of any single country.
C] Celebration of international days:
A teacher of history should organise programmes to celebrate days of international importance . For example UNO day, Human rights day etc.
D] Experts:
The lectures of the foreign national could be organised which will help students understanding the historical events.
E] Pen friends:
Teacher should encourage the students to make pen friends with students living in oter countries. It will help them understand the way of living of others and will make them aware about the different cultures.
F] Through Audio Visual material:
One of the most effective ways of developing international understanding is use of films, film strips, art reproduction, and transcripts suitable for particular classroom situation. It depicts the progress and downfall of the various cultures of the world.
G] Use of Map:
A glance at world map gives idea as to how closer are the countries to each other. It also depicts how significant position does one country occupy in the world and how it is dependent on each other. The trade relationship and cultural exchange among the countries will make students understand the sense of being world citizen.
H] Understanding Role of various agencies:
UNO and various other organisation are playing important role in promoting peace and settling disputes at international level. The knowledge of these organisation will help in developing understanding for world peace.
I] Participation in student exchange programmes:
Different organisations are working for and implementing students exchange programme with foreign countries wherein students can experience the culture of the different countries. It helps in sharing the information at different levels.
The teacher of history must develop international outlook himself. He should make students understand “Since wars begins in the minds of the men, it is only in the minds of men that defences of peace must be developed.” Through developing a global dimension in education young people can start to critically engage with complex global problems which transcend national borders. Adopting a global approach can empower pupils to imagine alternative futures and act to realize them.
4.7 TEACHER’S GUIDE BOOKS
The teacher's guide book is the key resource containing practical teaching and learning ideas and materials.
4.7.1 CONCEPT OF TEACHER’S GUIDE BOOKS
Teacher’s Book helps to plan and execute the lessons. It provides guidance and inspiration to teachers.
The Teacher’s Guide book provides information about:
- States objectives of teaching particular unit
- The methodology to be followed while teaching a particular subject.
- Different strategies could be utilize to teach particular topic
- Provides ideas about the evaluation procedure
- Also states the time required to each a particular activity
- Deals with the details about the activities included in the textbook
- Provides information about the reading material regarding the specific unit
4.7.2 ADVANTAGES:
Good teacher’s guide book-
Save time when it comes to lesson planning
Offer ideas for bringing a topic alive
Provide a wealth of extra materials to give the students practice in the areas find challenging.
4.8 Suggested Reading
• Teaching of History- Arora
• Teaching of History- Kothari
• Teaching of History-Aggarwal
• History in the New NCERT Textbooks: A Report and an Index of Errors by Irfan Habib, Suvira Jaiswal, and Aditya Mukherjee; Indian History Congress, Kolkata, 2003
• http://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/
• http://www.textbookleague.org
• http://www4.uwsp.edu/
• http://www.nchs.ucla.edu
4.9 Questions
• What is critical thinking? How will you develop critical thinking among the students?
• Explain importance of using different sources in History.
• What are biases? Explain the ways to overcome biases in History.
• “History develops sense of international understanding.” Justify.
• Which information is consisted in teacher’s guide book? What is importance of using teacher’s guide book?
UNIT – V
UNIT STRUCTURE:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Developing Lesson Planning and Scheme of Lessons
5.3.1 Lesson Plan
5.3.2 Scheme of Lessons
5.4 Evaluation in History: Instructional Objectives and Construction of Objective Type Test in History.
5.4.1 Instructional Objectives
5.4.2 Objective Type Test in History
5.4.3 How to Construct Objective Test Items
5.5 Suggested Reading
5.6 Questions
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Planning integral part of any activity. Therefore teacher has to plan the classroom activities very carefully. Even the assessment at the end of the period helps in understanding the level of achievement of objectives.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will able to-
- Understand the essential components of lesson plan.
- Meaning of objective type of test.
- Identify different types of objective test items.
5.3 DEVELOPING LESSON PLANNING AND SCHEME OF LESSONS
Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning. A teacher who is prepared is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience.
5.3.1 LESSON PLAN
Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning. A teacher who is prepared is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience. A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:
• Objectives for student learning
• Teaching/learning activities
• Strategies to check student understanding
Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help in determining the teaching and learning activities to be used in class, while those activities define how evaluation technique to check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished.
5.3.2 SCHEME OF LESSONS
Content Analysis:
The teacher has to analyse the content selected for teaching in the classroom. The teacher has to find out the key concepts from the content
Learning objectives:
Learning objectives determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning
Previous Knowledge:
The previous knowledge of the students could linked to the content. The teacher should check the previous knowledge of the students before taking up the new content.
Introduction of the lesson:
Well begun is half done. The introduction of the lesson arouses curiosity among the students. It should be based on the previous knowledge of the students. The introduction should be brief, to the point. The success of the lesson depends on the introduction. A creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. Variety of approaches could be used to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real- world example, short video clip, practical application, probing question, etc.).
Statement of the topic:
After introducing the topic the teacher should state the topic which she is going to deal with.
Presentation:
The teacher has to now proceed in the new content matter after stating statement of aim. Lesson should be divided into sections. It should be arranged in chronological manner. Teacher has to prepare several ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of students and appeal to different learning styles. Teacher has to manage time for extended explanation or discussion, and also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding.
Chalk board work:
Chalk board summery has to be developed as and when teacher explains different sections of the content.
Teaching Aids:
Teacher could take help of different teaching aids to support explanation. It will help in making the lesson more interesting for the students and also will help in clear understanding of the concepts.
Recapitulation:
The purpose of recapitulation is to consolidate the lesson in the minds of the students. Some questions could be used for this purpose.
Evaluation:
It is essential to check for student understanding. Teacher has to think about specific questions could be asked to students in order to check for understanding. Different strategies could be used here for example quiz, worksheet, crossword etc.
5.4 EVALUATION IN HISTORY: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRUCTION OF OBJECTIVE TYPE TEST IN HISTORY
5.4.1 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Bloom, an American Educationalist made an effort to make teaching process objective centred. He made educational objectives as the basis for teaching activities and evaluation techniques. During the 1990's a new group of cognitive psychologists, led by Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom), updated the taxonomy to reflect relevance to 21st century work.
Instructional Objectives:
1. Remembering: Retrieving, recalling, or recognizing knowledge from memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce definitions, facts, or lists, or recite or retrieve material.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from different types of functions be they written or graphic messages activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing. Applying related and refers to situations where learned material is used through products like models, presentations, interviews or simulations.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material or concepts into parts, determining how the parts relate or interrelate to one another or to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions included in this function are differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between the components or parts. When one is analyzing he/she can illustrate this mental function by creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or diagrams, or graphic representations.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In the newer taxonomy evaluation comes before creating as it is often a necessary part of the precursory behavior before creating something.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a new way or synthesize parts into something new and different a new form or product. This process is the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy.
Source: http://ww2.odu.edu/
Importance of stating instructional objectives:
- Provide direction for instructor
- Convey clearly instructional intent to others
- Provide guide for selecting content matter
- Provide guide for selecting appropriate teaching methodology
- Provide guide for selecting suitable material for teaching
- Provide guide for constructing reliable test and choose instrument for evaluating
5.4.2 OBJECTIVE TYPE TEST IN HISTORY:
“Evaluation is the process of gathering and interpreting evidences on changes in the behaviour of the students as they progress through the school.”- Quillen and Hanna
An objective test item is defined as one for which the scoring rules are so exhaustive and specific that they do not allow scorers to make subjective inferences or judgments; thereby, any scorer that marks an item following the rules will assign the same test score. Objective tests began to be used early in the twentieth century as a means of evaluating learning outcomes and predicting
future achievement, and their high reliability and predictive validity led to the gradual replacement of the essay test.
The features of objective type tests in History:
- Greater reliability
- Economy of time in the administration of tests
- Higher diagnostic value
- Easy to conduct
- Uniformity of scoring the answers of the students
Categories of objective type of tests:
The objective type tests could be classified into two broad categories- Recall type , Recognition type.
Recall type:
In Simple recall type of questions the response must be easily recalled by the students. These questions begin with what, who, where, how. Answer in one word, arrange the event chronologically are examples of simple recall type questions.
The completion item is consider where student supply the answer. In this type incomplete sentences to be completed. It checks how much students know the specific information. Fill in the lank questions fall into this category.
Recognition Type:
Alternative response items are those in which only two alternatives are presented to the students for their response. True or false is the simplest form of this type of questions. A major advantage of the true/false test is its efficiency as it yields many independent responses per unit of testing time. Therefore, teachers can cover course material comprehensively in a single test.
The limitation of the true/false test is its susceptibility to guessing.
Another selected response format type is the multiple-choice test. It require the examinee to select one or more responses from a set of options. The correct alternative in each item is called
the answer (or the key), and the remaining alternatives are called distracters. Examinees have less chance of guessing the correct answer to a multiple-choice test question compared to a true/false test question. In addition, the distracter an examinee selects may provide useful diagnostic information.
The matching test, which consists of a list of premises, a list of responses, and directions for matching the two. Examinees must match each premise with one of the responses on the basis of the criteria described in the directions. A major strength of the matching test is that it is space- saving and, therefore, can be used to assess several important learning targets at once.
5.4.3 HOW TO CONSTRUCT OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS
The scoring of objective test items is easy. It only requires one to follow the scoring rules. However, constructing good objective test items requires much more skill and effort.
First step: to develop a set of test specifications that can serve to guide the selection of test items. It is called as blue print.
Second step: to create specific test items. Typically, it is particularly important for objective test items to be written in clear and unambiguous language to allow examinees to demonstrate their attainment of the learning objectives. It is also important for each objective test item to focus on an important aspect of the content.
5.5 Suggested Reading
• Teaching of History- Arora
• Teaching of History- Kothari
• Teaching of History-Aggarwal
5.6 Questions
• “A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time.” Justify.
• Explain the instructional objectives teaching History.
• Which questions will you include in objective type History test?
Source:https://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Education/Education_Paper_5_history.pdf
Web site to visit: https://ddceutkal.ac.in
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