Well, my name is Ed Carawan. I am, like Joe Hughes, an associate professor in classical languages. He’s asked me to stand in for him today to lead you in a discussion of one of my favorite plays, Euripides’ Hippolytus. Now, I’m hoping, by now, you’ve all read the Hippolytus and you’re keenly aware of some of the issues in this play. I’ve given you a study guide that I will try to follow in these remarks, but we may wander far astray. I’ll try not to let any extraneous matter wander in from the hall while we are at it. But before we even begin with the formal outline I’ve proposed, let me just ask you about your general reactions to Euripides’ Hippolytus. What did you think of it? Was it a play that had any value for you? Is it something that grabbed you? I don’t see a lot of response here. It is sometimes a hard play to get into.
It is one of my favorite plays, in part, because it’s a surprisingly successful effort with a very unlikely scheme. You’ve probably noticed it is one of those two part plays. It falls into two halves. Literary critics call these diptychs. Somebody dies in the middle of the play and the play seems to fall in two. To my mind, it is the best two-part tragedy we’ve got. That is a rather notable achievement for Euripides. The original audience thought it was a pretty good play, because Euripides won first prize with it back in the year 428. Now, that puts him in some pretty good company, because that’s probably the year right after Sophicles won first prize with the Oedipus Tyranus. Euripides didn’t win that many first prizes. He wasn’t really all that well appreciated. So this time he really clicked with the ancient audience. He doesn’t seem to click with you.
Did you have some reaction to the poem? A student who did not read the play? At least you were honest. That may be more than what we see in Hippolytus. Maybe that is the problem. He is not entirely honest with his own limitations. I’m giving things away before we get started. Let’s start with some of the matter on the guide, just to make sure that those who haven’t read the play will at least make some sense of these remarks. We need to identify the principle characters and the setting for the play. Everyone should at least know who Theseus is and Phaedra and Hippolytus—and why the play is set at Troezen and not Athens or some other great historic site. You all know who Theseus is, to start with the clincher. We haven’t gotten to Theseus, is so let me explain a little bit about him. He is king of Athens. He’s son of a king of Athens name Aegis, whose name may mean nothing to you, just yet. But an important part of the tradition was the he was also supposed to be the son of the sea god, Poseidon. Now that’s one of many instances where a hero apparently has, shall we say, a legitimate father in the mortal line and the not-so-legitimate father among the gods. It puzzles you a bit, but you’ll see many examples of this sort of doubtful paternity.
At any event, the fathership of Poseidon is kind of important, as we’ll see at the end of the play where Theseus calls down a mighty curse from his father Poseidon. Now, Theseus and his family are in exile in the city of Troezen, not in Athens. We don’t have a good map here, and I’m not so talented as Joe Hughes with illustrations, so I’m not going to try to draw one for you, but if you imagine Greece like a hand reaching down into the Mediterranean, Athens is right here on the ball of the thumb or the heel of the thumb. Well, Troezen, is kind of right across the bay. You can’t quite see Athens on a clear day, but it’s sort of there in the imagination. So, as this play is performed in the theatre of Dionysus, right there at the foot of the Acropolis, the audience, looking up at the Acropolis, could more or less imagine they’re in Troezen looking across the bay at their home city.
Why is Theseus, king of Athens, out of Dodge? Well, he has committed one of those famous acts that come into most tragedies. He has committed an act of homicide. Now, we all know what happens when you do a killing in the ancient world. What happens? What has to happen? You know what has to happen. You’ve got to get the hell out of Dodge and get purified, in a nutshell. The way homicide works in the ancient world is a stain, a physical defilement attaches to the killer. He must leave the community of his victims and go into exile until he receives ritual purification at the hands of some priest, king, or—in this case—at the hands of a god. Theseus has killed some of his political rivals of Athens; a group called the sons of Pallas—not to be confused with Pallas the friend of Athena. This was a nobleman of Athens who just happened to be named Pallas, so his sons were called the Pallantiads, the Pallas kids. In what we would call civil war, Theseus had killed some of these political rivals and, although it was an act of justifiable homicide, he must, nonetheless, go into exile until the god gives him purification. So that’s why he’s in exile in Troezen. That also explains why he’s not on stage the first half of the play. He has gone off to the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi to seek forgiveness of the god, for god to tell him how he will cleanse himself of this terrible crime.
He wanders back about midway through, and things really heat up. Now, there is mention in the play of a character who never appears, but his shadow sort of hovers over the play. Pittheus is supposedly still alive. Now who the heck is Pittheus? Nobody of any importance for us, except that he is mentioned in the play. He’s the grandfather of Theseus. He is king in Troezen. You may recall, when Theseus gets back from Delphi and he knows that something terrible has gone wrong, his first suspicion is that his aged grandfather, Pittheus, has died. Now, Pittheus and Troezen has been serving as mentor to young Hippolytus. Hippolytus has been reared in Troezen. We’ll come back to his character and what he’s doing in just a moment, but let’s be sure that everybody knows who Phaedra is. Phaedra is... any help here? Stepmother. Phaedra is the stepmother of Hippolytus. Let’s stick with maybe what we can be more clear about. She is wife of Theseus. That much we know. She is the second or third wife of Theseus, depending on how you count. She is the second daughter of King Minos, that Theseus carried off to be his bride.
You may remember the story of Ariadne. When Theseus slew the Minotaur, he made his escape with the help of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos. He carried her off, only to abandon her on a desert island. Theseus was a notoriously forgetful guy. Now, we don’t know how it quite worked out, but somehow or other, he ends up with the second daughter of King Minos, Phaedra, as his wife in later tradition. Now, Phaedra, will remember the misfortunes of her family. She comments that there is some sort of curse upon the women of her line. Her mother, Pasiphae—oh, you’re going to love this story when you get to it—had fallen in love with a bull, had sex with a bull and gave birth to the Minotaur, the half man, half bull creature of ancient legend. So her luck in love wasn’t all that great. Then Ariadne was abandoned by Theseus. So, Phaedra has some justification for thinking that love has some vindictive mission against her family. I suppose Phaedra is, in many ways, the most evolving character in this drama. Most readers of the play come away with a profound sense of attachment to Phaedra and utter loathing for just about everybody else. Is that not the reaction you had? No? We’ll see how you think about it once we get a little farther in.
Hippolytushimself, some of you clearly have a notion of who he is. He is the son of Theseus, but not of Phaedra. It’s not quite as kinky as that. Phaedra is in love with him. I’m not giving away too much by reminding you of that, but she is his stepmother, not his blood relation. Hippolytus is the son of Theseus and an Amazon princess. That’s right. His mother is sometimes called Hippolyta, the feminine form of his name, but the best tradition calls her Antiope. That name in not quite so important for us just yet. But it’s important to remember that she is, in essence, a bride of war, a woman Theseus took captive in military campaign. Hippolytus is a bastard offspring of that union. Perhaps that contributes something to the resentment I hope you all felt between father and son in this play. Right? You got a sense of that, did you? We’ll come back to that in the closing scenes. Now Hippolytus has been brought up, as I mentioned, in Troezen. He is to be the heir of Pittheus, and the expectation is that he will be king of Troezen after the death of Pittheus. Now there’s a bit of paternal foresight involved there, because Theseus obviously wants his other children by Phaedra to be brought up as legitimate heirs to the kingdom of Athens, and thus two separate kingdoms would not clash. There would be none of the usual rivalry between the two lines of descent. But all of that doesn’t quite work out.
Before we get too far into the tragedy, let me begin with some basics. I’ve mentioned in the outline two terms that may not be immediately self-evident. When you look at the way a tragedy works it’s often useful to plot what I like to call the complication and reversal. These terms mean more or less what they sound like. Tragedy begins with a problem, a crisis. Some imminent doom hangs over the characters. You don’t have a problem, you don’t have a tragedy. The usual pattern, then, is for the problem to get more and more complicated, more and more puzzling, and inscrutable for about the first half of the play, then, all of a sudden, some piece of the puzzle falls into place. Things suddenly begin to become more and more clear and inevitable. They don’t get better. They get worse and they get worse in a hurry. Things begin to, as the critics say, unravel. We call that process the denouement, the unraveling. You don’t need to know that term. We want to look at that scene a little later on where we can mark the reversal, what Aristotle called the peripide, that place where something crucial happens and, all of a sudden, it begins to get serious. Now, at the outset of Hippolytus, we all know the problem. Everybody in the ancient audience knew the essence of the story.
The protagonist, our man, Hippolytus, has offended the goddess, Aphrodite. We expect her to punish him for it. Those in the audience who know the traditional story will know that Hippolytus meets his doom, somehow, through the love of Phaedra. It’s a type of story that’s very ancient. The woman, scorned, who casts guilt upon her intended object, like the tale of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife in the Old Testament and countless other examples. In this case, we don’t know just how it will all work out. Remember writers of tragedy were very inventive. Euripides was, perhaps, the most successfully inventive of them all. He changed the story. He never told the story in its conventional way. Sometimes unrecognizable is the product of Euripidean invention. Now, sometimes his products were so inventive they bombed terribly. We know, in fact, he had done an earlier version of Hippolytus that was even more provocative. He was roundly booed for it. He lost. Apparently, he had showed on stage Phaedra attempting to seduce the young man into her bed. The ancient audience could not put up with that kind of effrontery. So, this time, he did another version of the Hippolytus story. In the play we have, he brings about the doom in a much more respectable way. In fact, I’d say that’s the problem, isn’t it? Everyone is so damn respectable.
No? Hadn’t noticed that? Well, let’s look back at it. So I ask you to consider, first of all, why is Aphrodite determined to destroy Hippolytus? What does she have to do to accomplish that? A very basic question. Well, she tells us why in the prologue. I’m looking especially at Lines 12–24. Notice that it isn’t just that Hippolytus has devoted himself to Artemis. It isn’t just rivalry between the two religions. She says clearly enough that she does not begrudge such devotion to other gods. But it is because, she says, “he has blasphemed me, counting me vilest of the gods.” Now, we’re going to get a good picture of this blaspheme in the very first scene where Hippolytus comes on. He returns from the hunt with his merry men and makes offering to the alter of Artemis. Imagine, the set on stage would give prominence to two alters, one to Aphrodite and one to Artemis. Hippolytus,upon his entrance, goes directly to the alter of Artemis and offers up sacrifice to the goddess, ignoring Aphrodite whose alter stands right there beside the other. Now, a faithful servant comes up, one of these useful little facilitators of ancient drama. He says, basically, “how come you have no salutation for the goddess? Why do you show no reverence to Aphrodite?” But Hippolytusshouts, “What goddess? Be careful what you say.” Evidently he has forbidden all of his servants even to mention the name of Aphrodite in his presence.
So the servant has to say, “This goddess here, Cyprus.” He has to call her by her descriptive title. He can’t even use her name. We see later in the play that Hippolytusis very sensitive about what people say around him. When the nurse finally reveals that Phaedra has the hots for him, he says, “I’m going to go down to the creek and wash out my ears. I can’t stand this.” Very sensitive about what people say. It’s this kind of blaspheme, this kind of utter rejection of the goddess that has offended Aphrodite. So she says, there in the prologue, “For this, for such sins against me, I shall punish Hippolytusthis day.” And she says, “My work is already done.” Before Phaedra even came to Troezen, she fell in love with him at first sight, once, when he came to Athens to worship Artemis there. This is the goddess’s doing, the fell love spell. This is all she had to do. She foretells that Phaedra’s love will be revealed. Theseus will slay his son with curses from Poseidon. Phaedra, she acknowledges, will suffer through no fault of her own, but the suffering of the innocent, now, means nothing in the scale of gods’ vengeance. Aphrodite says that clearly here, and it’s a repeated theme in much of ancient tragedy. Notice, this is all we see of Aphrodite in the course of the play. She never again lifts a finger to do anything in the action of the play. That is very important.
So, I think it’s important to recognize that the outcome is the work of human character. Characters, throughout the play, call it the work of the gods. I have a list of passages where one character says, “The god made me do it, so the gods must be at work.” But Euripides is the most forthright of the ancient dramatist in calling it humans emotions as he sees them. In one of his notorious plays, just a few years after this one, the Trojan Women, he says outright that Aphrodite is nothing but a respectable name for human lust. I think we’re entitled to see her in that light in this play, already. At the end of the play, we turn back this level of mythic causes and Artemis blames Aphrodite and promises her own vengeance. But, inside that pious window dressing in the action of the play, the goddess does nothing. Let’s look closely at what happens. Phaedra, I’ve said, is the character who probably most involves our sympathy because, especially at your time of life, I doubt there is anyone who has not suffered the agony of a love that just won’t work. No? I see some looks of uncomprehending befuddlement. Well, anyway, live on. You will experience this. But I’m asking you, is it really Aphrodite that causes the doom of Phaedra?
Joe asked me to speak on this topic, because I have such peculiar ideas about it. I’m going to reveal some of them to you. I don’t think it’s about Aphrodite at all. What, I would ask you, is Phaedra’s driving motive? I give that on the guide and we need really to look at that. What is the single overpowering motive that defines her character, that tells her who she is? What is it that really leads her to suicide in the end? If we had to identify that one characteristic that really tells us about her, I don’t think passion of love would be that defining feature. I think she tells us who she is in that disturbing speech I like to call the Predicament of Woman. It tells us about a woman’s predicament in Greek society that begins about Line 380. That is page 254 in your Grene and Lattimore text. Now I’m going to paraphrase. I’m going to try to put it in more comfortable English, but, if you have the text there, you might want to follow along. And, remember, as we look at her description of a woman’s predicament, the usual marriage pattern in Greek society, little boys and little girls grew up with very little contacts throughout their adolescent years. The usual marriage was made between a man of middle age and a girl in her mid-teens. By the time she reaches her real maturity—at Phaedra’s time of life, with young children—here are likely to be problems.
The ancient tragic writers and comedy writers were very fond of playing on this. The usual consequences were alcoholism, which shows up big time in comedy and adultery, which shows up well both in comedy and tragedy. When she is in her late 20’s, she’s got a husband who is in his late 50’s. There are going to be problems. So Phaedra says, “We women know the right thing to do, but we can’t stick to it. Some of us are betrayed by laziness or pleasure. It’s just easier to give way to desire than struggle against it.” Again, I am paraphrasing, but that’s pretty true to the Greek. Then she turns abruptly back to that sense of the right thing. She calls it “shame.” Shame is a big word in this play. I hope you noticed that. She says, “Shame of the worst kind is a crippling sense of what is respectable.” She’s obsessed with it. She’s obsessed with what other people will say. Even deeper, what other people will think. Nothing, she says, can seduce her away from doing the right thing. Nothing can force her to give in to the passion in her heart. How has she tried to avoid this? She tells you. She says, “First I tried silence and concealment.” She hoped just by keeping quiet it would go away. That didn’t work.
Then she says she tried to conquer love with discretion. That’s a nice phrase, “tried to conquer love with discretion.” What do you suppose she means by that? We live in an age of so little discretion, it may be hard to understand what she’s getting at. As I understand it, what she means is, she tried just to stay away from him. To make use of that old commonplace, out of sight out of mind. If you’ve ever been involved in an awkward relationship, you may have used that strategy yourself. “I’m not going to the dance tonight, because Loretta might be there. I can’t stand to see her again.” You know that kind of thing. It’s the stuff of country music songs and soap opera. I don’t mean to diminish it. That is a really important part of coming to terms with who we are as human beings in relationships, right? So she tried that and that didn’t work. The only thing left to try is death.
She says she made up her mind to die rather than risk shame. Then, about Line 403, she says, “It would always be my choice to have my virtues known and honored. So, when I do wrong, I could not bear to see a circle of condemning witnesses. I know the scandal it would bring,” she says. She knows how people despise the wife who betrays her husband. In the end of that speech, about 420, she says, “I cannot bear that I should be discovered a traitor to my husband and my children. God grant them rich and glorious life at Athens. From their mother may they have an honorable name.” I’ll quote verbatim here. “It makes the stoutest-hearted man a slave if, in his soul, he knows his parents’ shame.” Now, at the end, of this speech, she touches on a very practical motive. In part, she does what she does, struggling to conceal her love and then keeping her good name. She does it for her children. Let’s understand that.
If it were known or suspected that she had once been unfaithful to her husband, then Theseus would have reason to doubt the legitimacy of Phaedra’s children. Perhaps he would even disinherit them. But notice how closely this motive goes together with Phaedra’s own obsession with shame and good name. She’s one of the best examples of what is often called “shame culture,” that apparently flourished in Greek society, at least before the dawn of the enlightenment. Phaedra doesn’t seem to have a clear sense of her own worth apart from what others say about her. Now, to give you a sense of the difference: In modern society, by contrast, we’re dominated by guilt, internalized conscious. We are preoccupied with what we may have done wrong, whether anybody knows about it or not. Or, at least, that has often been the description of modern society as a guilt culture. By contrast, for Phaedra, it says, “though that circle of condemning witnesses”—such a marvelous phrase—“that circle of condemning witnesses has swallowed her up.” She doesn’t really have a sense of self separate from the group. Do you understand what she seems to be describing? It is very important part of the characterization of Phaedra in this play, I think. So I would say that Phaedra was more a victim of shame that Aphrodite. That is one of the great ironies of this play. I think Euripides lay awake at night thinking how to work this. A traditional story in which Aphrodite is the victim? No, I think the victim is shame. Shame is, in many ways, the work of Artemis. Phaedra is a victim of the very virtues so dear to Artemis and Hippolytus:purity and righteousness.
Well, if she, herself, would never give into love, as I suggest, how is her secret betrayed? Ah, there’s the nurse! Remember, by the way, first the nurse is horrified and, probably, she actually contributes to Phaedra’s despair. But, then, she turns around and hatches this scheme to save Phaedra. What is it the nurse intends to do? This is very tricky. She pleads with Phaedra in a long speech ending about 477. I’ll just cap the end of it. She says, “Endure your love. Deal with it. The gods have willed it. You’re sick. You have a disease. So try to find some subtle means to turn your sickness into health.” It’s not a moral problem; it’s a physiological thing. There are, she says, magical love charms, spells of the enchantment. We’ll find some remedy for your love sickness. Now, what is she planning to do? Surely we have some answers. Who will leap into the jaws of the trap, here?
The usual reading suggests she is planning to give a drug to Hippolytus. How many people think that is what she aims to do? Well, there probably were a few in the audience who leapt with that conclusion, too, but I think any close reading would say that’s not exactly what she has in mind. Notice, in the very next scene, we see her arguing with Hippolytus. She’s obviously revealed the secret to him. He speaks with horror of her trafficking in his father’s bed. She obviously hasn’t given him any love potion. I think the audience is meant to understand that the nurse will give the potion to Phaedra. That is clearly the only way that Phaedra can be made to submit to her passions. Notice, the love remedy comes up in the long speech where the nurse is pleading with Phaedra to face up to her infatuation and deal with it. “Even the gods are slaves to love,” she says. Does she, Phaedra, expect to be stronger than the gods? None of that has much persuasion. So I’m convinced the idea is the drug must be for Phaedra. But I admit a problem in this theory. How could the nurse believe that she could seduce Hippolytuswithout a love charm, “so potent is his obvious obsession with chastity.”
The answer, I think, comes in the two great confrontations we want to look at: what Hippolytus says to the nurse and; then, what Theseus says to Hippolytus. First is the quarrel between Hippolytus and the nurse, the famous diatribe against women. We want to consider Hippolytus, now, in the same way we considered Phaedra. What is his driving motivation? What’s the single characteristic that most clearly defines him? Notice that when the nurse pleads, “so pardon, have mercy, show compassion. It is natural to sin, since we’re human beings.” Hippolytus explodes. “Women,” he says, “this coin that men find counterfeit.” Women are like plug nickels. They are worthless. They just look shiny and good. “Why, Lord God, did you put them in the world? If you were so determined to breed the race of men, you should have done it without women. You should have made it possible for men to turn the statues they dedicate to the gods into sons as righteous as themselves, without the taint of women.” Now that’s a very interesting idea I expect Joe Hughes will want to talk more with you about. For the moment, let’s continue with this marvelous harangue. He says, “How great a curse is woman. The father has to pay a dowry to be rid of her and the husband, he pays to take her. Quickly learns that she will cost him more that he’s worth.”
Notice, especially at the end of his speech, as Phaedra is listening at the door, he says, “Curse is on you,” he says to the nurse and all women like her. “I’ll hate you women. Hate, hate, and hate you and never have enough of hating.” Then he’s suddenly aware that he may be a little off—a little upset. He says, “Oh, some say I talk of this obsession too much. Yes, but too much, also, is woman’s wickedness. Let someone teach them to be chaste, and then I’ll stop trashing them all the time.” Now, that is a rough paraphrase, but I think I’ve captured the sense of that speech. I don’t think anyone can read this speech and think that Hippolytusis a figure of heroic virtue. It’s true, in the end Artemis will make him a saint, but the gods play by their own rules. In human values, I think we can say that Hippolytusis the epitome of the woman hater, the misogynist. In his defense, I have to acknowledge he is probably a character well-known to everyone in the ancient audience. He is a creature of the male-centered society that was Athens. In many ways, he’s a victim of that androcentric, society just as Phaedra is. He has never learned how to connect with other people, especially with women.
Well, we’ve come to the climatic scene, the reversal, where all is suddenly decided and there is no going back. Phaedra curses the nurse for her help. She’s now convinced that Hippolytuswill tell his father, and she decides to cast guilt upon him and take her own life to prove her accusation. Let’s list her motives. Everyone should know why she does it. Obviously, she does it in large part for shame, for fear that her name will be dishonored. She does it out of regard for her children. She mentions this in her last speech. But let’s not forget one further motive that somewhat tarnishes her character, I think—understandable, but perhaps it is not altogether forgivable. Her motives certainly include revenge, vindictiveness of a woman scorned. She says around Line 728, “I shall delight the goddess who destroys me.” There’s more of that god talk. “The gods make us do it.” “Bu, in my death I shall at least bring sorrow on somebody else. So his high heart may know no happiness at my life’s shipwreck.” That is poetic talk for, “I am going to get even with Hippolytus.” “He will have his share in this, my mortal sickness, and learn of chastity in moderation. He will learn there are some limits even to righteousness.”
Now, we know she takes her life. She does it the way all good little aristocratic girls would do it. She did it by hanging. Occasionally, we find, that it’s done by the sword, but I believe that hanging was something that aristocratic women in the Greek world taught their daughters to do. “If you need a way out this, is how it’s done.” By contrast, you’ll notice that in modern American society, hanging is something that is predominantly male. There is quite a story there. I’m sure Joe Hughes will want to share with you, but I’ll leave that for another day. In any event, Theseus now returns. He finds the body and the incriminating letter and he is immediately convinced that Hippolytusis guilty. Why? Well, of course, first reason, he has unimpeachable evidence. Deathbed testimony in the ancient world, as even today, is pretty weighty stuff. There’s a natural presumption that a person about to die has no reason to lie. So Theseus says, around Line 960, “What oath can you swear, Hippolytus, what argument can outweigh her last words?” He points to the body and he says, “Here is the dead, the surest of witnesses.”
Now, this is one of the moral fallacies I think Euripides is out to demolish. Human motives are much too subtle for such simplistic rules. In many of the crimes that come to light, we will never know without God’s help who done it or why. Recent events may have brought this home to many of us. There are surely deeper motives at work in Theseus’s conviction of his son’s guilt. He has unimpeachable evidence, but there’s more to it than that. Don’t we get a sense that there is a very raw relationship between father and son? How did the father, Theseus, veteran of such raping and plundering, take to this pious lad devoted to righteousness? How could he believe that such a character would do such a thing? Well, he tells us in his famous speech. I call it the Indictment to Theseus. Around 948 he says, “You are the veritable holy man. Yeah, you’re a saint. You walked with gods in chastity, immaculate.” He says, “I don’t believe your boasts of communing with gods. The gods are not such fools. You boast that you eat no meat. Orpheus is your spiritual master. You read great thick books whose substance is thin as smoke. I have found you out,” he says. “All of this is just a sham. Such men as Hippolytus hunt their prey with holy-sounding words, but their designs are dark and ugly on the inside.”
So ironically, Theseus is all the more suspicious of Hippolytus because he puts on such a show of righteousness. However sincere it may be, Theseus doesn’t believe him. He knows, after all, of holy men with closet sins. Don’t we all, right, in the age of Jim Bakker and Jimmie Swaggert? That’s what he’s talking about. Such fallen saints, I think, in every age seem to outweigh the impression of truly religious folk, who are true to their calling, right? They make much better press. Especially for those of us, like Theseus, who don’t really believe that anyone is really capable of chastity. He’s not capable of it. He can’t believe his son could be, right? We all tend to judge others by our own limitations. Theseus is a study in that. He says, “Young men are no more to be trusted that a woman, when love gets them all shook up.” Now that’s a pretty damning criticism, remembering how little value the Greeks traditionally put upon a woman’s responsibility. Theseus says, “The very man in them makes them false.” He doesn’t have any higher opinion of his own gender. So there’s that motive, the show of righteousness seems false.
There’s one more motive. Theseus suspects his son out of prejudice, because he is a bastard. He says such sons are always jealous of the legitimate sons. He suspects Hippolytus has done this, in part, to discredit the children of Phaedra, in hopes that Hippolytus can seize the kingdom of Athens, right? For all these reasons, he calls down a curse from Poseidon, but he lives to regret it. But, you know, in these fiendish ironies of tragedy, we need to ask ourselves, “Can we say for sure that Hippolytus did not deserve his doom?” Notice the messengers report of the fatal scene. This begins about 1187 and following. He tells how Hippolytus met his death. It’s a beautiful picture and very meaningful to the ancient audience. He says he, Hippolytus, put his feet in the driver’s rings. In the chariot, there would be sort of stirrups for the driver to brace himself against the pull of the horses. He put his feet in the driver’s rings and he took the reins in his hands and folded his hands in prayer. Get the picture, now. This picture is very important and, since, in tragedy, you usually can’t do sex and violence on stage, somebody has to come from off stage and tell you about it. This word picture is very important. Feet in the stirrups, reins in the hands, he prays. The visual symbolism is important.
He folded his hands in prayer and said, “Zeus, let me die now if I am guilty. Let my father know he has done me wrong.” The very next moment death comes upon him from the sea. Now the ancient audience would recognize this vow as a standard sort of oath test to prove the strength of his convictions. In any dispute a man will put his hand on some visual symbol of his claim. If it’s a case of murder or violence, he will perhaps hold the knife or some other symbol of a violent act. If it’s a claim about money, he will put his hand on some token of the sum in question. He will call the gods to witness to punish him if he swears falsely. Then he will make his claim. If the gods then punish him, his guilt is proven. Now, of course, the oath of Hippolytus and the curse of Theseus come together. We can't say which has brought on doom from the gods. This irony, the irony of Hippolytus’s oath, hangs over the pious redemption at the end of the play, where Artemis absolves Theseus, pronounces Hippolytus a saint and a martyr and then swears vengeance on innocent beloved of Aphrodite, Adonis.
In all the action of the play, the only thing that a god actually does, he does in answer to the will of a mortal man, either Theseus’s curse or Hippolytus’s oath. I think this is part of the conventional wisdom that the ancient audience would want to draw from the play. The gods are there, but they’re not out there. They’re part of us. They’re part of those human motives that drive us to our doom. As Plato would say, “the god is not to blame.” Human righteousness consists in understanding human needs and limitations. Know thyself. That’s it. We’re done.
Source: http://courses.missouristate.edu/josephhughes/myth/TranscriptsWord/Lecture21.doc
Web site to visit: http://courses.missouristate.edu
Author of the text: indicated on the source document of the above text
If you are the author of the text above and you not agree to share your knowledge for teaching, research, scholarship (for fair use as indicated in the United States copyrigh low) please send us an e-mail and we will remove your text quickly. Fair use is a limitation and exception to the exclusive right granted by copyright law to the author of a creative work. In United States copyright law, fair use is a doctrine that permits limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. Examples of fair use include commentary, search engines, criticism, news reporting, research, teaching, library archiving and scholarship. It provides for the legal, unlicensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test. (source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use)
The information of medicine and health contained in the site are of a general nature and purpose which is purely informative and for this reason may not replace in any case, the council of a doctor or a qualified entity legally to the profession.
The texts are the property of their respective authors and we thank them for giving us the opportunity to share for free to students, teachers and users of the Web their texts will used only for illustrative educational and scientific purposes only.
All the information in our site are given for nonprofit educational purposes