History of Beer

As said by Peter Owen in Beer is Best, “Beer has been around for centuries. It started out as a family drink brewed in the back yard”. Today, beer is a multibillion-dollar industry, with millions spent on advertising, and is brewed on an enormous scale, producing millions of gallons of beer. The industrial revolution helped transform how beer is made and has made it what it is today. Beer has been a mysterious drink. Back in the Middle Ages beer was thought to be very bad for the body. But today, more is known about beer, including the chemical makeup and the chemical processes that it undergoes to produce the drink. Yet with all of this advancement in history and technology beer still remains roughly the same drink it was thousands of years ago.
Brewing and the processes behind the creation of beer have been around for thousands of years. The basic principles of brewing have stayed the same but emerging new technologies such as the steam engine, hydrometer, and the refrigeration unit have created a more consistent and thorough job of creating beer. The ingredients yeast, barley, water, and hops each play their role with the capability to change how the different processes have an effect on the production of beer, the flavors that arise, and how different types of beer come to be. Different processes in brewing of beer each individually impact how beer turns out. With the advancement of technology, the process of making beer has become more efficient, streamlined, and chemically balanced.

Early History          

In Ancient Egypt, as far back as the Predynastic era of 5500-3100 BC, and possibly even further, evidence is found of beer and alcoholic beverages. As most evidence shows, and as recorded by the Greeks, it was the Egyptians who invented beer (Hornsey 33). Because of the lack of a sewage system, water was a breeding ground for disease. It is because of how unhealthy the water was that people turned to beer. In places where grape vines would not grow, beer was the drink of every man, rich or poor, pharaoh or common-man (Fig 1). Not only did the Egyptians have basic beer brewed from barley, but according to ancient texts, they had “dark beer, iron beer, garnished beer, friend’s beer, and beer of the protector” (37). These beers would be brewed for special state events and other such holidays. Grains and barley were so big in the Egyptian culture that beer, along with bread or raw grains, was even used as a form of payment (43). While hops were certainly not used in the beer production and flavoring of ancient Egypt, what is suggested by their texts is that the date palm was used. Although the complete process is not fully understood, due to translation errors, it is assumed by many that fermentation originally took place by accident when germinated grain began to spoil. It is from there that the soon to be brewers must have realized that fermentation is something they could control and eventually would refine the process to create a crude beer. While all of this was taking place in Egypt, in the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, brewing of another sort was taking place in Mesopotamia.
As in ancient Egypt, all Mesopotamian social classes drank beer. Like in Egypt, beer was also tied to religion as well as to medical properties. While there are many documents and pictures, there is not a vast amount of physical evidence of brewing or breweries in Mesopotamian societies, and only one of the three physical sites that were found is in the main land of Mesopotamia; the other two sites are found in Syria (79). While there isn’t much evidence of large scale brewing, the techniques in Mesopotamia and in Egypt seem to be very similarly tied with bread-making, even though there is also little documentation of actual techniques. Mesopotamian brewers, just as the Egyptians, had concocted several forms of beer, such as “black beer, red beer, barley beer, spelt beer, fine white beer, and fine black beer” (82). The beer in Mesopotamia was said to be “cloudy and thick”, and if it was unfiltered it was drunk through straws (86). While most of the straws have deteriorated, pictures inscribed in walls depicting people drinking with straws as well as a golden straw have been found in the Royal Cemetery at an ancient city, Ur (86). Because of the pictures depicting several people drinking from straws at once rather than just one person, it is assumed that drinking was a social event. In fact, not only was it a social event, but it was a customary sign of a good time; “It was considered to be bad mannered to leave a banquet in an upright position; indeed, this was a sign that the guest had not enjoyed himself.” (104).

Middle Ages – Present

In the Middle Ages beer was one of the main staples in the diet of almost everyone. From royalty to the lower classes they all drank beer with their meals. In fact beer was drunk with every meal. Although the royalty and the upper classes did not drink as much as the lower classes, they still had beer quite often.  This was due to the water in the Middle Ages. Water back in the Middle Ages was very dangerous to drink because of urine in the stream. The urine caused very bad diseases that made people very sick and could kill them. Because of this, beer became the staple drink in the lower classes that couldn’t afford other drinks, such as wine, that were safer to drink. Even though it was safer to drink than water, beer was thought to actually be harmful to their health. This notion came about because not a lot was known about beer at the time. Brewing beer in the middle ages was not done in the breweries that see today nor was it done by smaller shops but by families. Families each brewed their own beer. Breweries came to be when “Monks built the first breweries as pioneers of the hotel business, providing shelter, food and drink to pilgrims and other travelers “ (Fosters, par. 18).
The industrial revolution brought in many inventions that changed how beer was brewed. These inventions intern helped make it more consistent and more available to everyone. The steam engine (Fig. 2) brought in many inventions that helped make beer in breweries. It made automatic steering machines that helped mix the beer while it was hot, this helping it to have a more consistent taste. “The steam engine was used to pump the liquor (water)” which allowed the breweries to move beer from one tank to another (Norton brewery par. 3). This allowed more storage room as well as faster brewing time resulting in more beer because brewers could make beer in a revolving system. The pump allowed them to move beer around from tank to tank breaking up the brewing process into sections of brewing. The steam engine also made the refrigeration unit. This allowed brewers to be able to make beer year round. Before they would make large quantities of beer in the winter so they could save enough for the summer time. With the refrigeration unit they could make it cold enough to produce beer in the summer. The industrial revolution also produced the hydrometer, which allowed brewers to use different quantities of ingredients to produce different flavors of beer.

In America, beer has become a predominant drink, even though it did not start that way. In the 19th century, beer was quite common in America. Large breweries produced much of the beer that was available, but in the 1920’s prohibition started. Prohibition was when the U.S. made it illegal to sell, transport and manufacture alcohol. Breweries had to change to produce other types of drinks or they went out of business. After prohibition ended there was a substantial drop in the amount of breweries in America. With only a few large breweries it led to a marketing war between the large breweries. After prohibition, microbreweries started to appear. Microbreweries are companies that make beer on a much smaller scale than the larger breweries. The variety of beer changed with the addition of microbreweries so the microbreweries could compete with larger companies.

Microbreweries
Microbreweries are smaller, local breweries that go back many years.  “Brewpubs are a natural progression of microbreweries” (Yares par. 5). Microbreweries became very prominent during the times when refrigerators had not been made. Beer could not be transported, so the town would make their own. Once refrigerators were made, many microbreweries shut down because of big name brewers. Prohibition caused microbreweries to come back into play. In order for people to acquire beer during this time, they must have brewed it themselves or gotten it from smaller brewers. After prohibition ended, these microbreweries continued selling beer to local bars (par. 3).
The term “microbrewery” originated in the United Kingdom in the 1970s. The original term microbrewery was initially coined to show the size of the brewery, but later was used to show the breweries flexibility, experimentation, and overall new and alternative attitude towards brewing (Answers par. 2). They are used for local and regional markets and must produce less then 15,000 barrels of beer per year to qualify as a microbrewery (par. 1). The first one to be opened in the United States was in Washington in 1982. Redhook Ale (Fig 3), which was opened in a trolley barn, is one well-known brewpub/microbrewery in America.
Microbreweries are able to brew different kinds of lagers and ales. Unlike big name breweries, such as Budweiser and Coors, microbreweries do not need each batch of beer to taste exactly the same. They are able to alter each batch to taste a specific way they want it to. There are over 1600 microbreweries currently active in the US (par. 7).

Science of Brewing Beer

As a brewer prepares to brew beer, they have to take into consideration the numerous factors involved.  One of the bigger factors in the early stages of beer brewing is the nitrogen level.  According to Karl Ockert, “free amino nitrogen (FAN)” levels determine “yeast growth, high diacetyl levels, [and] high beer pH” (Ockert 9).  The typical nitrogen level is between 15 mg/100 ml and 35 mg/100 ml, and this can be controlled through the choice of malt (Ockert 10).  Due to modern day technology, breweries can actually check the levels to make sure everything is correct. The large breweries must check the chemical balance often so every batch tastes the same, while small scale breweries don’t have to worry as much about performing checks since the taste doesn’t need to be exactly the same. Large-scale breweries also perform checks more often because they usually have enough spare resources to check FAN levels for a cheaper price.
Another factor in brewing is the oxygen level in wort, the basic ingredient for beer.  Wort is the result of the mixing grains and water, then heating the mixture up until enzymes break down the starches into sugars.  After wort is cooled, dissolved oxygen (DO) acts as a catalyst for fermentation and more yeast production.  In doing so, DO indirectly affects the taste of beer.  Dissolving too much oxygen in wort can be detrimental to beer because yeast production will get out of hand and cause the beer to have bad taste.  Brewers can control or experiment with beer taste just from the oxygen level in beer, ranging from “0 [ppm] to more than 40 ppm” (19).
One last factor in beer brewing is the amount of organic acids available in the beer.  These organic acids contribute to the pH of beer, which plays a factor in controlling beer hazing, how fast maturation happens, or how easily beer can be contaminated by bacteria.  It also plays a part in beer flavor, as a low pH level usually means the beer flavor won’t last as long (24).  There are some ways to control beer pH to a favorable level.  These ways include “lowering brewing water alkalinity, lowering wort pH, using low protein malts,” and more (25).
In the older days of beer brewing, brewers didn’t have the technology to monitor the FAN, DO, and pH levels.  It was because of the lack of technology that they expected they would occasionally brew some faulty beer.  However, modern day technology allows the brewer to monitor the FAN, DO, and pH levels.  With this technology, the brewer is able to alter the way beer tastes, looks, or even how long a beer can last for.
In order to prepare the ingredients for beer brewing, certain precautions need to be considered.  One of these precautions is building a fermenting cellar fit for yeast fermentation. These cellars must allow for easy access for cleaning to prevent mold and bacteria from growing and ruining yeast.  Modern day cleaning supplies makes this task relatively easy to accomplish, so brewers only have to worry about constructing the cellar out of material that can handle the constant cleaning (67).
Another preparation is the refrigeration of lager.  Modern day brewing is fairly simple with the use of a refrigerator.  However, the older days required the storage of lager during the cold, winter days.  One method was to build the cellar underground and use ice to help cool the cellars.  The cold air would sink and the warm air would rise out of the cellar (74).

Fermentation

Fermentation is a process naturally occurring in nature. The Ethanol fermentation process occurs on fruits or other matter very rich in sugar. Living yeast cells during fermentation convert sugars inside of these varying life forms, leaving behind as a by-product alcohol and carbon dioxide. When fermentation is further investigated, especially when incorporating brewing, it involves the big question of how the creation of beer came about through the use of fermentation, especially when the grains and other products of beer are not rich in sugar. Beer is an alcoholic beverage that is made from grains that are extremely rich in starch. Starch cannot be directly processed into sugars, nor can starch alone be used during fermentation, but with the help of brewer’s starch can be converted into sugars, and then the known process of Ethanol fermentation can begin (Ockert 49).
The beginning process of starch being transformed into sugars consists of germination and steeping. This biochemical process includes many different aspects that are to be incorporated. During these steps, enzymes are “synthesized and/or activated” and from there these enzymes are used to help breakdown the endosperm cell walls (Mather 1). Endosperm is “the starch bearing portion of the grain”, and the cell walls are the outer membrane of the individual cells (Ockert 16). The breakdown of these cell walls allows attacks by starch on the cells, and also incorporates enzymes that degrade protein found within the cells. This process is known as “enzyme modification” (Mather 1). The result creates malt, which is highly concentrated in a “source of sugars, readily degradable starch, amino acids and enzymes” (1). This is a basic explanation of the start of barley and malt becoming readily available for ethanol fermentation to begin.

Ingredients Of Beer

Beer contains four main ingredients: barley, which is seed of grain, water, hops, which comes from the flower of the hop vine, and yeast, which helps to create the alcohol. Before barley is used in the beer, it is first malted. By soaking the barley in water for a few days, then draining it, the barley is able to germinate, or sprout and the product is called green malt. Nutrients are converted into sugars during this process; these sugars will later feed the yeast.  The malt is temperature sensitive, and raising or lowering the temperature during drying can alter the flavor and color. Hops, which contains acids, prevents the formation of bacteria in the beer while also giving the beer a bitter taste and beer’s characteristic smell. By changing the kind of hops in the beer, manufacturers are able to change the taste of the beer (Nice, par.7).        
Many factors are incorporated when a brewer is looking at the quality of barley that is going to be used in creating a malt. Different reasons affect why barley is grown today, whether being grown for feed intended for animals, or specifically used for brewing/malting (Ockert 17). Agronomy could be considered the scientific use of plants for many different purposes, such as food. The important factor when dealing with agronomics is considering what the intended purpose for this crop will be, and will help the growers focus much more on selective breeding. When dealing with barley that is going to be used to create a malt, intended for brewing, the requirements have a much different focus. In this case the barley being used has been specifically bred for traits that involve many different aspects of barley, especially for flavor. Today many new kinds of barleys are being genetically modified to have multiple characteristics that malters are looking for which create the best flavors and just overall quality all will affect the final product. Other important characteristics would include such things as “disease resistance, dormancy, modification potential, husk retention, flavor and overall malt quality” (17). The most important factors would be flavor and overall malting quality; these two characteristics would have the largest impact on the final product. All of the other characteristics each individually play an important role, and depending on the brewer’s intentions each will be specifically looked at and considered in this extremely complex equation.
Hops are also a very important factor when being incorporated for brewing. It is not uncommon to find hops and barley in the brewing industry that have had some genetic modifications to increase what the brewer is looking for. In the brewing world they too are being bred for disease resistance and aroma, both are important factors to consider while malting and brewing. The aroma of the hops could be considered one of the most important roles when selecting hops. If the product doesn’t have the aroma of a high quality brew, it can tarnish all of the hard work put into creating the brew. Brewers strive for their product to have the highest quality of every aspect, and aroma is considered one of the most important factors (19). Barley and hops being bred for their disease resistant factors will not only help reduce the prices to brewers, but will also help decline the amount of pesticide resistant insects. Another positive ecological effect this will have is reducing the negative ecological effects that pesticides can have on an environment. Due to genetic variation, and advances in the technology involving genetics, brewers have never had so many options on what specific qualities they want to select for their final product.
The final ingredient added to the beer is yeast. The yeast is used to create the alcohol by feeding on starches; “Yeast is the single-celled micro-organism that is responsible for creating the alcohol and carbon dioxide”(par. 8). Similar to hops, using different kinds of yeast changes the flavor of the beer. Two different kinds of yeasts are ale yeast, which is top fermenting, and lager yeast, which are bottom fermenting. Top fermenting means “it rises near the surface of the beer during fermentation” and bottom fermenting means, “they ferment more slowly”(par. 9).  Fermentation is an important chemical reaction that has been known for thousands of years and plays a substantial role in the brewing world.\

Types Of Beer
Beer generally falls into two main classifications, ale and lager. They differ by the yeast and temperature used during brewing; ”The yeast used in making ale ferments the best when the heating temperatures are warm and the lager uses yeast that will ferment best when heated on cool temperatures”(Clarke, par. 3).  From these two types of classifications, companies have been able to create thousands of types of beer. Many ingredients can be added to beer to get different tastes, such as spices, fruit, vegetables, pumpkin spice and cherry (par. 10).
The three different types of ale are brown ale, porter ale, and stout ale. Brown ale, which most would think to be brown, is actually a red copper color and has the mildest taste among ales. Porter is a stronger and darker ale. The hops added to it give a slight flavor similar to chocolate. The darkest ale is Stout and is described as “so dark [it looks] black and they are thick beers with strong barley and hop taste”(par. 9).
Lagers have four different types, American Style Pale, Pilsner, Dark, and Light. Compared to the other lagers, American Style Pale lager contains the most carbonation. Pilsner is normally less bitter and has a pale color. Light lagers contain less hops and barley then other beer and “It is for this reason they are also lighter in calories although they usually have a lower alcohol concentration as well”(par. 5). The use of roasted barley and hops makes the Dark lagers; “This is why they will be dark in color and have a full-bodied rich taste that so many beer drinkers love”(par. 6).

What started out as an accidental fermentation has become a multibillion-dollar market. While beer was once used to survive, it is now used to relax.  While the science of brewing has changed over the course of history, the actual process has remained relatively untouched.  Technology has changed the way things are done in breweries, but in the end, the brewer of ancient times and the brewer of modern day still must have a dedication and a passion for what they do.

Work Cited

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Clarke, Beverly. "Types of Beer Articles | Beer." Beer Information & Resources | Beer Brewing | Beer Glasses. 14 Nov. 2008 <http://beer.amatterofinterest.com/Beer/Types-of-Beer.html>.

"History of beer." Fosters Group. 2006. Fosters Group. 21 Oct 2008 <http://www.fosters.com.au/enjoy/beer/history_of_beer.htm>.

Hornsey, Ian S. A History of Beer and Brewing. Washington D.C.: Royal Society of Chemistry, The, 2004.

Mather, Tinker, et al. "Regions of the genome that affect grain and malt quality in a North American two-row barley cross." Crop Science 37.n2 (March-April 1997): 544(11). Academic OneFile. Gale. Library of Michigan. 22 Oct. 2008 
<http://0-find.galegroup.com.elibrary.mel.org/itx/start.do?prodId=AONE>.
"Microbrewery: Definition from Answers.com." Answers.com - Online Dictionary, Encyclopedia and much more. 5 Dec. 2008 <http://www.answers.com/topic/microbrewery>.

Nice, Karim. "HowStuffWorks "How Beer Works". Howstuffworks "Food and Recipes Channel”.<http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/beer.htm>

Ockert, Karl. Fermentation, Cellaring, and Packaging Operations. Alexandria: Master Brewers Association of the Americas, 2006.

"Our Unique Engine." Hook Norton Brewery. 1 Dec. 2008 <http://www.hooknortonbrewery.co.uk/public_visitors/steam/steam_home.html>.

Yares, Kat. “What is a Microbrewery?”. “WiseGEEK: Clear Answers For Common Questions”. 21 Oct. 2008 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-microbrewery.htm

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