16TH  TO 19TH  CENTURIES

PERSON

ACTIVITY AT SITE

RESULT

Workmen

Digging a canal

Accidental discovery of Pompeii
Architect of project recorded the discovery of inscriptions

Workmen

Digging for limestone

Led to accidental discovery of Herculaneum

Rocco de Alcubierre
1738-?
Spanish

Dug at site where Fontana found inscriptions
Was directing mining operations
Found frescoes, statues, artefacts for King of Naples
Filled in holes once they took everything – criticised by Cardinal Qurini

Thought he found site of Stabiae

Inscription found which read ‘res publica Pompeianorum’

First identification of site of Pompeii; inscription translated as ‘state of Pompeians’

Francois Mazois
French architect

Record the site, find treasure

Team of 1500 men excavated  and made accurate  records (The Ruins of Pompeii)

Treasure hunting

Both sites looted
Paintings cut from walls
Mosaics lifted from floors
Statues, columns, vases, coins removed and added to collections of kings, museums and private individuals

ARCHAEOLOGIST

METHODS OF EXCAVATION

RESULTS & DISCOVERIES

Karl Weber
1750-1764
Swiss

Decided to uncover site systematically.
Made sketches and drew plans and elevations of the ruins.
Kept detailed inventories of finds and located them on a site plan.
Inventories and reports were sent to King and were guarded.
Believed in the importance of publication.
Tried to stop the practice of reburying excavated ruins to let visitors experience excavated remains.

Discovered a tavern
Villa of the Papyri- accidentally
Tomb of the Istacidi
Bronze statues found in the Villa of the Papyri
Found 1,800 carbonized papyrus scrolls which many were destroyed in the 18th century when they tried to open them.

Francesco la Vega
Started in 1764. In 1765 director of excavations in Pompeii (though he still reported to Alcubierre.
In 1780 he was put in full charge of excavations in
Pompeii

Structured and systematic:  he excavated each building completely making detailed notes on all notable interiors and carried out a complete search for artefacts in the buildings he excavated.
Kept a detailed diary of the excavations
Detailed designs of buildings and employed a notable draftsman to copy the wall paintings of the temple of Isis
Detailed maps of excavations.
Had a general plan of Herculaneum drawn up.
After excavating he became concerned with conservation – all excess soil and rock excavated was removed off site, provision was made for structural repairs and maintenance of the buildings

In Pompeii:
The temple of Isis
The Odeon
Gladiator barracks
Villa of Diomedes
In Herculaneum: House of the Surgeon and House of Sallust.
The discovery of the temple of
Isis in 1764 (December) meant that Pompeii now received worldwide attention, and as a consequence conservation was now critical.
REF: The Lost World of Pompeii, by Colin Amery and Brian Curran Jr, published by Frances Lincoln Ltd 2002.

Giuseppe Fiorelli
1860-1875
Italian

“It is hard to exaggerate his impact on the history of Pompeii…Fiorelli remains the individual who had the greatest impact upon the way in which Pompeii has been both excavated and perceived” Cooley

Michele Ruggiero
1875-93

Guilio De Petra
1893-1901

Ettore Pais
1901-05

Antonio Sogliano
1905-10

Excavation primarily focussed in northern most quarters – Central Baths, House of the Centenary, House of the Vettii uncovered

Investigated areas outside the city walls

Excavated the remains of the Vesuvian Gate and the water tower

Devoted himself to conservation

Directors at Pompeii – all Italian

August Mau
1873-1909
German
Studied art and architecture
Worked under the direction of Fiorelli, 1860’s
His own work was influenced by Fiorelli’s systematic work
Spent his summers excavating and his winters analysing
Stayed for 25 years

Mau sorted paintings into four styles. This was very important because not only did it teach about the aesthetics of Pompeii and decoration within houses, but it helped to date houses and is still being used today.
1st Style: ‘Incrustation Style’ 150-90BC
Imitates coloured marble blocks by moulding plaster and painting it to resemble the same traits as marble. Influenced by blocks of marble used in temples. Very simple.
Examples are seen in the House of the Faun.

2nd Style: ‘Architectural Style’ 90-25BC
Roman influence. Is an elaboration of the first style minus the moulded plaster work and plus an emphasis on architectural reality. Columns, doors and ledges were all painted as realistically as possibly and were in proper perspective. Receding views were created through the use of columns which depicted scenes with a mix of reality and illusion (like windows.)
Examples can be found in the Villa of Mysteries.

3rd Style: ‘Ornate Style’ 25BC-AD40
Developed from the third style in the late Augustan period. Perspective is lost and the wall paintings become flat and the architectural detail becomes unrealistic. Mythological scenes are depicted and surrounded by flat columns and ornate panels, creating the sense of a ‘shrine’.
Examples are in the House of Marcus Lucretius Fronto.

4th Style: ‘Intricate Style’ AD40 onwards
A combination of the second and third styles. Architectural details are somewhere in the middle, being neither as solid in the second style or as un-realistic as in the third style. Scenes are framed by panels to create ‘windows’ and ornamental motifs and figures are more popular and can be found floating freely or perched upon columns and panels.
Famous examples include those in the House of the Vetti.

20th CENTURY

ARCHAEOLOGIST

METHODS OF EXCAVATION

RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES

Vittorio Spinazzola
Italian
1910-23
“One of the greatest problems facing Spinazzola when excavating the Abundance Way was how to consolidate the structural elements and the facades of the buildings. Since digging started from the upper layers along the street, the risk was that the facades might collapse under the weight of the mass of earth lying behind. Tremendous care went into removing the rooves of the buildings, trying to replace them on their original bearing structures, and into recomposing all the elevations, such as windows, shutters, doors and architectural cornices.”

Concentrated on the southern sections of the city
Dug via the main routes of the city
Preserved the top of houses first, the upper floors. Left the lower floors in place until the upper were complete.
This was a great discovery as it revealed what the streetscape looked like but also caused some problems.
Problems of the structural elements of the facades of buildings.
Restoration work remains in situ

Discovered and excavated by Spinazzola:
- House of Obellius Firmo (1911)
- House of Aulus Trebius Valente (1915)
- House of Cryptoporticus (1916)
- Stephanus’s Laundry (1916)
- Asellina’s Thermpolium
- House of Paquius Proculus
- House of the Ceii
- House of Pinarius Cerialis
- House of the Moralist
- House of Octavius Quartio

He unearthed the whole of the via dell’Abbondanza in Pompeii.

Amedeo Maiuri
Italian
1923-1961

Maiuri was very methodical in his work.
He hand dug, with shovels, carefully excavating the buildings, and moved the waste soil away by horse, to keep the whole site intact and usable.
Maiuri found a way to transport and dispose of the rubbish and dirt that was piling up around the city. Getting rid of this uncovered other areas that could be excavated to reveal more about the city.
He also conducted close studies of stratigraphical samples of the layers of soil underneath Pomp and Herc.
Interested in historical development of the site
Concentrated on area around Via dell’Abbondanza excavating on either side of road
Worked on House of Menander and House of the Surgeons – influenced by Fascist political line of unearthing glorious monuments to illustrate the magnificence of Italy’s past
Dug ditch around city wall to reveal construction method
Excavated older buildings, in and around main forum and Triangular Forum reveal Samnite and Greek building material – led to conclusions about occupation sequence
Much of his excavation between 1951-61 was rushed and little documentation was done.

“towering figure…endlessly energetic, learned and imaginative” Andrew Wallace-Hadrill

“his massive presence lies behind the excavation, publication and interpretation of the majority of houses” Wallace-Hadrill
He discovered:

• The Houses of:
• Fabias Amandio
• Priest Amandio
• Ephebe
• Theatrical Pictures
• Menander
• Of the Lovers
• Four Styles
• The Large Gymnasium
• The Villa of Mysteries
• The Imperial Villa
• The complete town perimeter
• The Necropolis of Porta Nocera (Nuverian Gate)
• Part of the strata below 79AD

Most productive period was during Fascist reign – 1920-WWII when site received state funding

Excavation ceased during WWII and 160 bombs dropped on Pompeii in 1943; recommenced in 1947

Looked for evidence of economic and social change in both towns – influence by Michael Rostovteff’s theories – believed in great upheaval in both towns after the earthquake of AD62 – believed they were in decline.

Wilhelmina Jashemski
American (Polish background)
1961-1984

Her archaeological investigations focused on the evidence of gardens and horticulture in the ancient city
Jashemski's work at Pompeii, Boscoreale, and Oplontis began in 1961 and continued until 1984.
She also worked on the excavation of the gardens of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
She has made extensive study of the gardens, orchards, and vineyards within the city walls and has shown that although some gardens were grown purely for pleasure others were commercial ventures.
She used plaster casts of cavities that formed on the roots of trees and vines.
She also used analysis of pollen found in ash and wall paintings to provide ample evidence of the fruit and vegetables grown in Pompeii.
Tried to identify systematically the location and character of all the gardens in Pompeii, supplementing her archaeological investigations, with material drawn from the archives. 
She was able to remove the final covering of lapilli revealing the soil contours and the lapilli filled cavities

As a result of her work we can now reconstruct a town full of colour and life with ornamental gardens and vegetable plots within houses, market gardens and vineyards of various sizes
Flowers such as lilies, violas, valerian, iris and roses were found – evidence of seeds and pollen.
Some flower beds were uncovered complete with elaborate watering system suggesting that this was a commercial flower garden.
Some pollen & wall paintings found shows evidence of: - fruits such as olive, walnut, almond, pear, apple, fig, cherry and laurel trees.
Date palms, oleander, rosemary, acanthus and ivy were also common.
Vegetables such as cabbages, onions, garlic, lettuce, asparagus, cucumbers, beans, leeks, radishes, turnips, parsnips and artichokes
Her discovery of the first intact remains of a good-size vineyard from the era revised perceptions of how the Romans planted and managed grapes, stored and used wine, and worked the land.
Her work from archival records highlighted the rather surprising fact that grand houses  might also contain large produce gardens
One of her most notable achievements was the revelation that the large area known as the cattle market was in fact a large commercial vineyard
Villas sometimes had a grape-press (torcularium)and vats (dolia)for the storage and fermentation of wine

Fausto Zevi
Italian
1977 – 1998
Superintendent of Pompeii

Joined fragments of inscriptions found in different locations
When he became superintendent, photographic and computer assisted documentation became a high priority.

He found a number of second-style wall decorations preserved in villas

Pietro Giovanni Guzzo
Italian
1995-
Superintendent of Pompeii

Only way to save Pompeii, he believes, is to stop all new excavations
“Archaeology is about solving historical problems, not finding buried treasure”
Also involved with the debate about the Villa of the Papyri – to dig or not to dig 

Makes restoration and maintenance of endangered structures a priority
Financial difficulty and tourism creates conservation problems
An important step in 1997 was the law passed that allowed Guzzo to retain all revenue from the gate receipts

ARCHAEOLOGISTS

METHODS OF EXCAVATION

RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES

Estelle Lazer
Australian
1986 -

Spent 7 seasons working on the skeletons in Pompeii
Was placed in a disused bath house were all the skeletons had been dumped and had to sort out each bone.

Suggested 3 main causes of death: asphyxiation, thermal shock and concussions from falling objects.
Challenged idea that those left behind were very old, very young, sick, women – bones indicate a good cross section of society.
Bones show people were well nourished, average height, many suffered arthritis, poor dental hygiene.

Sara Bisel
American
Died in 1996

Studied bones in Herculanuem – sponsored by National Geographic.
Looked at 139 skeletons.
Was criticised for giving the skeletons names and ‘life stories’.

Discovered average heights, excellent health of teeth, surgical procedures done, no sign of lead poisoning.

John Dobbins
American
1994-2006
Works at University of Virginia as professor in Roman art and archaeology
Director of the Pompeii Forum Project
Numerous publications that provide detail of buildings decoration and excavation in Pompeii

Focus on general urban layout and the position of buildings in relation to each other
Use of program AutoCAD program to precisely electronically document the layout

A post- earthquake (after 62AD) plan to upgrade and change street layout
Shows ambition to rebuild in a grander scale and proof that the Pompeiian society was not in society was not in a economic downslide but an urban upgrade after the 62 earthquake
Proposes that the earthquake in AD 62 was an opportunity to recreate the forum
Surveyed and provided a reinterpretation of the building of Eumachia

Andrew Wallace-Hadrill
(British) and
The Herculaneum Conservation Project
2000-
HCP is a collaborative venture between the Soprintendenza Archaeologica di Pompee, the Packard Humanities Institute and the British School of Rome. The project was developed in 2000 by Dr. David W. Packard and Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill who agreed with Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo that there should be an exploration of a major collaborative project. In May 2001, HCP was set up as a collaborative venture with the principal objectives of conserving and enhancing the ancient city of Herculaneum.

Slow down the rate of decay by major campaigns of emergency work and maintenance activity
They did a site-wide map of the extent and nature of decay followed by the consolidation of collapsing structures, the stabilization of crumbling plaster surfaces and disintegrating mosaics, eradication of vegetation, re-instatement of functioning water collection and disposal systems, roving repairs and substitution and pigeon control. These are the first steps taken by the HCP to ensure that the ancient remains survive.
Falconers are employed to keep away pigeons and nets are also being installed to deter them from the site.
They developed a conservation strategy to ensure the long-term survival of Herculaneum and enhance its value to all of its users. This is done in several ways:
Strategies of continuous care
Commission of numerous studies to improve our understanding of the site
Good information management to ensure that data is used.
Commission of integrated pilot projects to experiment long term conservation interventions
A single case study on the insula Orientalis I (an urban block)
Numerous small experimental initiatives throughout the site.

The site was drained of water for protection of remains.
The rate of decay has been slowed.
Structures and mosaics have been repaired or replaced.
Walkways have been constructed along the ancient shore-line to provide temporary access to the Fornici , installing gates there to protect the archaeological remains. (e.g. skeletons)
Solutions for drainage problems have been developed. Pumps have been installed to resolve this issue however the electricity supply is not constant.
Vegetation that may harm structures have been eradicated.
Other natural pests to the site such as pigeons are now also under control and are no longer a severe threat to the conservation of the city.
Through case studies and good information management, a greater understanding of the city and how to conserve it has been gained.