Incas

The Incredible Incas

The Incas never invented the wheel. Yet, high in the rugged Andes Mountains of South America, the Incas built thousands of miles of well-paved roads. 
Everyone in the empire was well fed, and no one was homeless. 
Find out why the Inca people are called the Children of the Sun. Meet the Sapa Inca. Learn about the Tall Tale Lords. Read a llama legend. Play Inca games. 
Welcome to the Inca Empire! 

Geography

The Incan Empire was located on the western side of South America. Although the Empire was huge, it can be easily divided into three geographical regions - mountains, jungle, and desert.
Andes Mountains: North to south were the Andes Mountains - home of the Inca civilization. The mountains dominated Incan society. The mountain peaks were worshiped as gods. 
The Andes created a natural barrier between the coastal desert on one side and the jungle on the other. The snow-capped mountains were full of deep gorges. 
The Inca built bridges across the gorges so they could reach all parts of their empire quickly and easily. These mountain gorges were natural barriers. If an enemy approached, the Incas could simply burn the bridges.
Amazon Jungle: On one side of the Andes was the Amazon jungle. The Incas must have entered the jungle occasionally, as they did know about the many valuable things that could be found in the Amazon, like wood and fruit and natural medicines. But they never established settlements there. They had no desire to live in the jungle. The Incas expanded north and south instead.
Coastal Desert: Between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean is a coastal desert 2000 miles long and between 30-100 miles wide. The desert provided a wonderful natural barrier. Some scientists think it is the driest place in the world. It is not completely barren. There are fertile strips where small rivers and streams run from the Andes mountaintops to the sea.

 

 

Quick History

Since the Incas never developed a system of writing, archaeologists must study myths and legends and the artifacts they left behind for clues about the ancient Inca civilization. 

Incan Tall Tales: The Incas loved stories. Special "wise men" created stories that were told over and over. They loved tall tales. Their emperors always did amazing things. Their battles were always bigger than life. The Incas believed in many gods. Some of their stories were about the wondrous feats of their gods. One Incan myth refers to an old man with long white hair, who was really a god. This god lived in a coal sack (the Milky Way). He created the Incan people.
Another popular myth tells a story about Manco Capac and Inti, the sun god. In that myth, the sun god created the Incan people. The story of Manco Capac is still told in Peru today. Click here to read this myth.

A Little History: At first, the Incas were simply a small tribe that lived in the city of Cuzco. They worshiped gods of nature. They believed in omens and dreams. Around 1430 C.E, a neighboring tribe attacked the Incas. The Incas won! That was the beginning of the Inca Empire.

Size of the Inca Empire: Over the next 100 years, the Inca Empire grew into a vast empire. The Incas were able to build a vast empire by demanding loyalty from conquered people. At the height of their power, the Inca Empire was 2,500 miles long, 500 miles wide, and home to 12 million people. These people called themselves "the Children of the Sun".

Land of the Four Quarters: The land the Incas ruled became known as "the land of the four quarters". It was named that because the Inca Empire was divided into four parts for ruling purposes. Cuzco was still the capital.
Sapa Inca and his Government: The Incas had a strong central government. The leader of the Inca people was the Inca, sometimes called the Sapa Inca (the only Inca), the emperor. His was not an elected position. The Inca was born to the job. The Sapa Inca was all-powerful. Everything belonged to the Sapa Inca. He ruled his people by putting his relatives in positions of power. Because punishment was harsh and swift, almost no one broke the law. 
The government was responsible for taking care of the people, including the poor, the sick, and the elderly. The government built roads and bridges and aqueducts to carry water to the people. In times of drought, the government distributed food. In times of natural disaster, such as earthquake, the government sent troops with food and blankets.

The Common People: In exchange, it was the people's job to work for the government. The common people worked very hard. But no one went hungry and no one was homeless in the Inca Empire. The state made sure everyone had enough food to eat and warm clothing to wear. It was important that people stay healthy. They were needed as workers.

Service Tax: The nobles who ruled the provinces conducted a census so that all people could be taxed. A census is an official count of all the people in an area and how they make a living. The Incas loved gold and silver, but they had no use for money. All Incan men gave the government some of their time each year in physical labor. This was how they paid their tax - with their service or their labor. The government built great palaces, public buildings, and the famous Incan roads with this labor. 

Terrace Farming: To feed the millions of people in the Inca Empire, the Incas invented terrace farming so they could grow crops on the steep mountain slopes. They used systems of irrigation to catch the rainfall and the spring run off from the snow-capped Andes mountaintops.

Religion: The Incas believed that their ruler was the direct descendant of the sun god, Inti. Their ruler was a god. The Incas believed in many gods. They believed in the god of nature, the moon, of weather, of rainbows, and of planets. Every mountaintop was a god. All Incas had little statues in their homes that were the homes of little spirits. Anything might house a god. Just to be safe, they prayed to all their gods every day. 
Every month, the Incas held a huge and public religious festival honoring one of their major gods. At the festival, there was dancing and feasting and sacrifice. Mostly, the Incas sacrificed animals. Sometimes, if something really important was going on, they sacrificed people. 

Crime and Punishment: There was almost no crime in the Inca Empire. Inca laws were very harsh. Punishment was swift.

Fall of the Inca Empire: The Spanish conquered the Incan civilization. Francisco Pizarro led the Spanish invaders. After a series of fierce battles, the Incas were defeated in 1531. The ancestors of the Incas still live in the modern day country of Peru today.

The Sapa Inca & His Government
The Sapa Inca was all-powerful. He ruled everything. He made all the laws. Everything was the responsibility of the Sapa Inca, and nothing could be done until the Sapa Inca approved it. How did the Sapa Inca rule 12 million people all by himself? That's easy. He didn't.

The Sapa Inca organized his government in a pyramid.

• Alone at the top of the pyramid was the Sapa Inca
  
• Supreme Council (4 men)
• Provincial Governors
• Officials (army officers, priests, judges, and others from the noble class) These individuals could ride in a litter and had other special privileges not enjoyed by the general population.
• Tax collectors. There were several levels of tax collectors. There was one tax collector for every ayllu (for every family group.) That tax collector reported to a collector higher up the scale who might be in charge of 10 ayllus. And so it went. Tax collectors could be in charge of 100 people or 10,000 people. Their rung on the social scale was measured accordingly.
• Workers. At the bottom of the pyramid were the workers. Workers were organized into family units called ayllus. Most of the people in the Inca Empire were workers.

When the Sapa Inca made a new law, he told the top tax collectors. They told the tax collectors who reported to them, who told the next level down, and so on, until everyone every farmer and every family in the empire heard the news. Since the workers could not vote or voice an opinion, that was the end of it until the Inca made a new law. Word would come down. If you broke any Inca law, punishment was harsh and swift. 

The Sapa Inca put his relatives in positions of power. You could work your way up. But mostly, the government officials were members of the royal family and the nobility.
It was easy to tell if someone in charge was a royal or not. When the royals were young children, boards were strapped to their heads. This was not painful, but their head grew almost into a point. To the Incas, pointed heads were symbols of beauty and prestige.

 

The Inca Army
The Inca armies were quite a sight. Their uniforms were very colorful. They marched into battle accompanied by drums, flutes and trumpets. 
The army was organized, well fed, and well trained. They wore warm clothing and protective headgear. They had plenty of medicine. 
Their weapons were superior to other neighboring tribes. Their main weapon was a wooden club. They also had bows, spears, and bolasses, which were Y-shaped cords with stones at three ends. 
They believed the gods were on their side. 
All of these things helped to make each Inca warrior a capable and powerful opponent. 
As time went on, when the Incan army marched their way, some tribes simply joined the Inca Empire rather than be defeated in battle.

Cuzco, Capital City
The capital city of Cuzco was the heart of the empire. It was situated about 11,000 feet above sea level high in the Andes Mountains. 
It was a beautiful city. There were palaces, temples, schools, houses, and government buildings. It had gardens filled with exotic herbs, trees, and flowers. There was a huge public square for ceremonies and gatherings. The streets were paved. Water was brought in by aqueducts to supply the palaces. (The Incas took frequent baths.)
Most of the buildings were made of stone. The Incan were master builders. Their stonework is shaped so that each piece fit together perfectly, without the use of mortar. Inca stonework is still regarded as the best in the world. Building stones were quarried in the mountains. 
Thousands of men were organized to hack out enormous blocks and to transport them to building sites.
The city was always under construction. Each emperor ordered a new palace to be built for his use. They had to, actually, as the palaces of the former Incas were still in use. The Incas believed in an afterlife. The mummy of a former Inca was housed in his palace. To wait on him, his servants and family continued to live in the palace. So new Incas had to build their own palace.
The famed Temple of the Sun was in the center of the city. The temple had six chapels built around a central courtyard. The walls were made of perfectly fitted stone covered with sheets of gold.
Cuzco was the seat of government as well as a city. It was a busy place. Messengers traveled back and forth with news from across the empire. Armies, engineers, priests, and administrators arrived and left again, traveling to wherever in the empire they were needed. Llama trains arrived with loads of food and goods. There were religious celebrations every month. Cuzco was the home of the Sapa Inca, as well as the home of all former Sapa Incas, who were still in residence in spirit.
The emperor lived in his palace with his family. His most important administrators lived in the palace as well. Only important visitors and noblemen had access to the emperor. Few commoners, except carefully selected servants, were ever seen in the city. Less important officials lived in the suburbs outside the city. They reported to higher up administrators, who reported to higher up administrators, who ultimately reported to the Sapa Inca.
A massive fortress guarded the city. You had to pass through a huge tollgate to enter the city. The gateway guards checked everyone who came and went. They noted everything coming in. They made sure nothing precious was removed from the city without permission.  
The guards also kept their eye on the criminals positioned at the city gate. As part of their punishment, criminals had to tell their tales of crime and punishment to all those who entered and left the city. This was to remind the people of what would happen if you broke the law.
Not very many of the common people lived in the city. Most of the people were farmers. They lived in farming communities. The only people who actually lived in or just outside the city were the artisans who made artwork for the temples. People who lived nearby might travel into town for festivals or business. But the city was mainly used for the government.

Crime & Punishment
Crime and Punishment: There was almost no crime in the Inca Empire. Inca laws were very harsh. Punishment was swift. 

• If you insulted the Inca, cursed the gods, or committed a murder, you were thrown off a cliff.  
• If you were caught stealing or cheating, you either had your hands and feet cut off.
• There were lesser punishments. You could be stoned. You could be tied to a wall and left to freeze.

If you lived through your punishment, you were classified as a criminal, and you became a ward of the state. The state took care of you. They clothed and fed you. In the Inca Empire, everybody had a job. Your job as a criminal was to tell others about your crime. That was your job for the rest of your life. 

Every day, criminals were taken to the city gates and assigned a begging bowl. As people passed by, criminals had to announce their crimes. If their stories were interesting, people would toss food or small trinkets into the begging bowls. That way, each criminal could prove how many people had stopped to listen as they confessed their crimes. And the people had daily reminders of what would happen to them if they broke the law. 
You might wonder why the criminals did not run away. Run away where? The common people were not allowed on the roads. But even if they were, the military guarded the gates to the cities. They kept an eye on the criminals begging by the gate. Any criminal who tried to run away was captured and killed. 

 

 

The Royals & Nobility
The rich belonged to an ayllus of noble family members. Members of the royals and nobility led a life of luxury. They were exempt from taxation. They could own land. They could own llamas. They had fine clothing. They were carried around on litters. The boys went to school. Some were given jobs of importance in the government. They had to be careful not to upset the Inca or they could rapidly lose status and even their lives. But compared to the common people who had to work very hard, their lives were ones of ease and interest.
Clothing: Everyone dressed in the same fashion in the Inca Empire - rich and poor. The quality of the cloth varied. The rich had soft clothes, heavily embroidered. The poor had coarse wool clothes. But the style was the same. Men wore sleeveless knee-length tunics, with ponchos or cloaks. Women wore long dresses and capes fastened with a pin of cheap metal or heavy gold, depending upon their status. All clothes were made of woven cotton or wool cloth.
Coming of Age Ceremony: When rich and poor boys turned 14, there was a coming of age ceremony that allowed the boys to demonstrate their physical and military skill. In a special ceremony, the boys had their ears pierced. Then, they were presented to the sun god, then took their place as adults. Boys from noble families worn special clothes made for this ceremony, woven from feathers.
Hairstyles: Hairstyles for the men were very important. Each noble ayllu had a distinctive hairstyle. Your hairstyle announced your social position. Since the Incas were very class conscious, hairstyles for the men were most important.
Earplugs: Men wore decorative earplugs of shell or metal. At their coming of age ceremony (at age 14), a golden disk would be inserted in their newly pierced earlobes. Bigger disks were continually added. These were called earplugs. Earplugs for the rich were so heavy that their earlobes stretched over time until they actually rested on their shoulders. This was considered quite stylish.

Daily Life of the Common People
Work Groups: The common people were organized into groups. 
Each group was like a family unit. There were 10-20 people in each unit. Each unit was called an ayllu. Within each ayllu, each person had a specific job to do.
Common people had no freedom. They could not own or run a business. They could not own luxury goods. The only items common people could have in their homes were things they needed to do their job. They could not travel on the roads. 
Still, life was not all work. A small amount of time was allotted for bathing and eating. They had lots of religious holidays. But they could not be idle. That was the law. Either they were celebrating a state approved holiday, working in the fields, or sleeping. 
There were many laws that kept a family (an ayllu) in its place. Laws dictated who should work, when, where, and at what time. Inspectors stopped by frequently to check on things. Breaking a law usually meant the death penalty. Very few people broke the law.
Most commoners were farmers: The emperor owned all the land. He controlled the use of the land through administrators. Administrators divided the land into plots large enough for a family to manage. Each ayllu planted enough food to feed themselves and others. Family groups helped each other when they could. 
Each fall, the administrators gave a family unit a little more or a little less land to farm based on how many people they had in their family unit. Farmers could only keep about one-third of their harvest. The rest went to support other people.
Service Tax: Farmers had to pay taxes on the land they worked. The Incas loved gold and silver. But they had no use for money. Tax was paid in labor - in billions of man-hours. That is how the Incas were able to build so much so rapidly.
Education: The Incan people were very smart. The children of the common people were not generally educated. When they were old enough, each child would be assigned a job to do. That was their job for life. The only training they received would be related to their job.
Food: People did not go hungry. The common people ate two or three meals a day. Their breakfast was typically a food called chicha, which was a kind of thick beer made from fermented corn. Their main meal was eaten at night. It was hearty. They ate corn with chili peppers seasoned with herbs, thick vegetable soups, and hot bread made from cornmeal and water.
Marriage: Everyone was required to marry. If an Incan man had not married by the time he was twenty, a wife would be chosen for him. Although the Inca royals had many wives, commoners could only have one wife.
Babies: When a baby was born, his or her arms were tightly bound to their body for three months. The Incas believed this binding made the baby stronger. Babies were rarely held. The Incas believed that if you held a baby, it would cry more. Crying exhausted the family. That interfered with farming. So, babies were not held. They were touched only to clean or feed them. They were left in cradles all day, alone.
Children, including babies, were left alone most of the day: Children were fed three times a day, but they also were not hugged. Again, they were only touched to clean or feed them. Many Incan children died young from neglect.
Homes: Common homes were made of sun-baked brick with thatched roofs. There were no doors and no windows. The doorway was covered with a strip of hanging leather or woven cloth. Goods were stored in baskets. On cold nights, people slept on mats, near the stone stove. In the morning, the family left to work the fields.

 

Terrace Farming
The Incas were great farmers. The three staple crops were corn, potatoes, and quinoa - quinoa seeds were used to make cereal, flour, and soups. Corn was special to the Incas. It was used in religious ceremonies. They also used it to make a drink called chicha. The Incas were the first civilization to plant and harvest potatoes.
Besides their staple crops of corn, potatoes, and quinoa, they grew tomatoes, avocados, peppers, strawberries, peanuts, squash, sweet potatoes, beans, pineapple, bananas, peanuts, spices, and coco leaves to make chocolate. They kept honeybees. Occasionally, seasonal hunts were organized to catch meat for the nobility. Commoners ate very little meat, but they did not go hungry.
The Incas invented the first freeze-dried method of storage. They left their food out in the cold to freeze. Then they stamped on the frozen food to squeeze out the water. They left their stamped on food in the sun to dry. It worked. When they wanted to use the dehydrated foods, they simply added water.
The Incas invented terrace gardening. They carved steps of flat land up the side of the mountain to create flat land for farming. The terraces also helped to keep rainwater from running off. They reduced erosion. The government built raised aqueducts to carry water to farmlands for irrigation.
The Inca farmers grew more food than was needed. Some of their food was dried and stored in royal warehouses for times of war or famine.

 

 

Specialized Professions
Jobs for the common people: Some people did escape life on the farm. Some boys were trained as artisans. Others were trained to be the servants and temple assistants of the royals, nobles, priests. Some actually rose to rather high positions in governmental service, but they were the exceptions.
Profession: Chosen Women
The most beautiful 10-year-old girls of each ayllu were selected to become "chosen women".  Chosen women lived in the temples. They were taught domestic arts. They studied religion. After a few years, they were assigned jobs in the homes of the wealthy, perhaps even the home of the emperor himself. Some were sacrificed to the gods and buried on mountain peaks.
Profession: Herders
The Incas did not have sheep, oxen, horses, chickens, goats or pigs. They had llamas and alpacas, both greatly prized for their meat and their wool. 
Young boys had the job of driving off foxes or any animals that might harm the herd. 
In the mountains, herders slept in small tents. They wore thick clothing to protect themselves from the cold. The carefully collected llama dung was used as fuel in the winter.
Profession: Craftsmen
The artists of the time were well-respected. They made necklaces for the rich of gold and pearls. They made beautiful as well as functional weapons. They made many religious items.
The Incas never invented the wheel, including the potters wheel. Their pottery was made by hand. It was gorgeous. The Incas are famous for a weird pot they made that has a pointed bottom. When filled, this pot balances itself upright. When it's empty, it lays on its side.
They made bronze by melting copper and tin together. They mined precious metals. They made statues, knives, weapons, pins for garments, and tools.
Profession: Weavers
Weaving was probably the most important of all the arts. Both men and women were weavers. Weavers made blankets, ropes, clothing, baskets, and thick twisted rope cable for the suspension bridges. Some of the wool fabrics they made felt like silk. Some weavers wove feathers into their fabrics. 
Weavers in Peru today use the same methods as the ancient Incas. The Incas used the same methods as the people before them. Some of the designs have remained unchanged for thousands of years. 
Profession: Sorcerers
The sorcerers were local people who had special abilities. There were not priests, but they were locally powerful because they could cast spells, read omens, and help or hinder you in your goals though the use of magic.

Profession: Warriors in the Inca Army

Cities & Buildings, Architecture
The Incas built the best planned cities in the ancient Americas. The Incas laid out their cities in a grid. Each city had a central plaza. That plaza was surrounded by public buildings and temples. A palace was built for visiting Sapa Incas. There was housing for priests and nobles. Houses were even built for the common people.
Most Incan cities did not have walls around them. Instead, the Incas built large stone fortresses near or beside their cities. In times of danger, people could run inside the fortress for protection. The rest of the time, the fortress housed some of the military. The military checked everyone coming in or out of the cities. The cities were very safe.
The Incas build beautiful cities. They liked their buildings to match the surrounding landscape. They used well-cut stone. The Incas were master builders. Buildings were constructed to last, and to survive natural disasters like earthquakes. Doorways and window niches sloped inwards slightly at the top. Roofs were also slanted. Incan buildings are amazing structures.
The architecture was formal yet simple. The Incas loved things made of gold and silver. But they also liked things to be simple. The outside doors leading in to their homes were often highly decorated. Inside, they had simple paintings on the walls and solid gold decorations throughout their homes.

Inventions & Achievements
Calendar: The Incan calendar was important to the ancient Incas for religious reasons. Each calendar month hosted a different religious festival. The Incan calendar was divided into 12 months. Each month was divided into 3 weeks. Each week had 10 days. 
The Incas used special towers called "time makers" that told them when a new month was beginning. Time makers used the position of the sun to mark the passage of time. 
Occasionally, time got off track a bit. When that happened, the Incas simply added a couple of days until the time makers were in line. This system resulted in a very accurate calendar.

Musical Instruments: The Incas loved music. They invented many wind and percussion instruments. Drums and flutes were very popular. The panpipe was the most popular. A panpipe is a group of single pipes tied together in a row. Each pipe in the row makes a different sound, and he pipes are arranged very carefully. Panpipes are still played in the Andes Mountains today. 

Systems of Measurement/ Quipus: Using a base of ten, the quipus had a main string about two feet long. Many additional colored strings were tied to the main string. Each string had knots in it. The color of the strings and the distance between knots all had meaning to the ancient Incas. The quipus allowed messages to be carried by the Inca runners from one end of the empire to the other. Some people believe the Incas could even tell stories with the intricate knots of the quipus. 
It took training to read the quipus. Only a few people could write and read their secret messages. To learn more, click here: The Incas wrote in string. 
Achievements important to the success of the Inca Empire:

• Communication: (roads, runners, string writing)
• Specialized Professions (engineers, metal workers, stone masons, other artisans)
• Service Tax (huge free labor force)
• Technology (terrace farming, surplus crops, irrigation systems)
• Strong Central Government (all powerful Inca, strict laws, basic needs satisfied)

Recap of Inventions:

• Terrace Farming
• Freeze Dried Foods
• Use of Gold and Silver
• Marvelous Stonework
• Wonderful Textiles
• Aqueducts (the Incas were frequent bathers)
• Hanging Bridges
• Panpipes
• Systems of Measurement (calendar, quipus)

Something they did NOT invent: The Inca people were very clever. But, they did not invent something that would have been very useful to them - the wheel. Nor did they conquer a tribe that used a wheel. The wheel was simply unknown to the ancient Incas. So, if you happen to see a movie that shows the ancient Incas riding in a cart or wheeling something down the road, it's just movie nonsense. 

 Early Tribes of Western South America
Many thousands of years ago, people settled in what would become modern day Peru. Life was rugged. The coast was a desert, one of the driest places in the world. It was freezing in the mountains, except when volcanoes heated things up. There were earthquakes and tidal waves and drought. On top of all that, the soil was poor. Yet people survived and flourished. They survived by being clever.
Chavin Tribe:  About 1000 BCE, an ancient people called the Chavins carved faces of their gods on massive walls of rock. They built a vast temple and tombs at the north end of the Andes.
Paracas: Archaeologists have found remains of this tribe including ancient weavings, gold, pottery, and skulls that show of what appears to be evidence of successful surgery.
Nazca: This tribe is best known for their wonderful patterns of birds and spiders and designs marked in the earth. They also left evidence of their life on their brightly painted pottery.
Moche Empire: Long before the Incas, this ancient culture built an empire in ancient Peru. Their brown and cream pottery was shaped in a most interesting fashion. Archaeologists found a pot that looked like a bird with human hands. Another pot looked like a potato with human eyes.
Chimu: This tribe defeated the Moche Empire, and took over for a while. Their pottery was dark and gloomy. Their major city was about 10 square miles and home to at least 50,000 people.
Chancay: This tribe's pottery shows a strange sense of humor that is both playful and frightening.
Incas: Around 1200 CE, a tribe that would soon call themselves the Incas began to build the city of Cuzco. About 200 years later, the Chancay attacked the Incas. The Incas won. In 1438, the new Inca ruler Pachacuti set about conquering all the other tribes on the western side of South America.