Communication

In order to communicate effectively, it is necessary to understand the roles we enact as communicators and receivers in the process. Communication is a skill that can be improved through practicing reflective listening skills, which include affirming contact, paraphrasing, clarifying, reflecting feelings, silence and eye contact. In addition, there are five keys to effective supervisory communication that distinguish us as good or bad communicators. This chapter also discusses defensive and nondefensive communication.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Understand the roles of the communicator, the receiver, perceptual screens, and the
message in interpersonal communication.
2. Practice good reflective skills.
3. Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors.
4. Explain five barriers to communication and how to overcome them.
5. Distinguish between defensive and nondefensive communication.
6. Describe contemporary information technologies used by managers.
KEY TERMS
Chapter 8 introduces the following key terms:
communication
interpersonal communication
communicator
receiver
perceptual screen
message
feedback loop
language
data
information
richness
reflective listening
two-way communication
one-way communication
barriers to communication
defensive communication
nondefensive communication
nonverbal communication
new communication technology
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I. THINKING AHEAD: Patagonia Communicates with Suppliers
II. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is the elicitation of a shared meaning in another person, and interpersonal communication is the communication between two or more people in an organization. Interpersonal communication includes various forms of communication, whether electronic, nonverbal or verbal.
A. An Interpersonal Communication Model
The key elements in interpersonal communication are the communicator, the receiver, the perceptual screens, and the message. Perceptual screens are windows through which we interact with people that influence the quality, accuracy, and clarity of the communication. The message contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. An important element in the model is the feedback loop, which occurs when the receiver provides the communicator with a response to the message. Our frustration with individuals who give us no visible sign of acceptance or rejection of our thoughts and ideas illustrates the importance of feedback.
Data and information are related, in that information is data that is organized and has meaning. Data are simply uninterpreted, unanalyzed facts. Some of the more interesting and thought-provoking research has been done with the valuing of information and the richness of the information media. For example, face-to-face discussions rank the highest in terms of information richness, and take up the least portion of data capacity. However, along with the need for a variety of forms of information, there is a corresponding data capacity that is often inverse to its richness. Walter Wriston, former CEO of Citicorp, said it is not difficult to get reports and printouts. The difficulty is getting summarized information that you can use.
B. Reflective Listening
Reflective listening is a skill that helps the receiver and communicator clearly and fully understand the message sent. It can be characterized as personal, feeling oriented, and responsive. Reflective listening techniques cannot be used in electronic mail because nonverbal cues are absent and written affirmation is delayed. The following techniques can be used to increase reflective listening skills:
1. Affirming Contact
An affirmative response is a verbal recognition by the receiver that he/she is following the topic. Students may understand this technique by thinking about giving presentations and recalling an individual they focused on who was smiling, or nodding his or her head for reassurance.
2. Paraphrasing the Expressed
When an individual paraphrases what s/he has heard, it helps clarify the information for the receiver as well as clarifying for the presenter what was not expressed well. One of the techniques of learning is to paraphrase information to another person. Ask students if they have tried this when studying for exams.
3. Clarifying the Implicit
Clarifying the implicit involves verifying unexpressed thoughts and feelings that the receiver notes within the interaction.
4. Reflecting "Core" Feelings
Reflecting core feelings is an intuitive attempt at understanding the deepest and most important feelings being experienced by the speaker from the speaker’s perspective. Receivers should exercise care in using this technique to avoid embarrassing the speaker.
5. Silence
Different cultures use silence in a number of ways. Silence is an approach to increase the ability for reflective listening. Students may grasp the essence of this technique by thinking of sayings, such as, "One reason dogs are so lovable is that they wag their tails instead of their tongues,” or "Silence is golden.”
6. Eye Contact
Eye contact is a strong nonverbal communication device that requires delicate balance. Too little eye contact suggests lack of attention; too much eye contact conveys intimidation. It is important to stress to students that this varies sharply from country to country.
C. One-way versus Two-way Communication
Two-way communication is more desirable in organizations because it allows for reflective listening. Problem solving and decision making are often examples of two-way communication. One-way communication sends a message to another person with no direct opportunity for questions, feedback, or interaction. In contrast, two-way communication allows the communicator and receiver to interact.
III. FIVE KEYS TO EFFECTIVE SUPERVISORY COMMUNICATION
Communication skills are critical for managers. Managers who score high on communication have also been found to be higher performing managers. There are five keys to effective supervisory communication.
A. Expressive Speakers
Better supervisors tend to be more comfortable expressing their thoughts and feelings than are other managers.
B. Empathetic Listeners
Empathetic listeners are able to determine the feelings and emotional dimensions of others, as well as their content regarding the ideas and issues. This communication skill depends heavily on reflective listening.
C. Persuasive Leaders (and Some Exceptions)
In most instances, it is effective and necessary to be a persuasive leader. Persuasive leaders encourage others to achieve results rather than telling them what to do. There are exceptions, for example, when immediate decisions must be made that may be life-threatening if delayed. Most issues, if managed well, require appropriate time to gather ideas.
D. Sensitive to Feelings
This communication skill is often confusing to students because it is similar to empathetic listening. However, being sensitive to feelings relates more to taking care not to place employees in awkward or embarrassing situations, thus showing concern for their self-esteem even when providing negative feedback.
E. Informative Managers
This communication skill refers to the amount of pertinent information that supervisors share with employees. Providing information is part of Mintzberg’s disseminator role. Total quality programs emphasize sharing information with employees; to be empowered, individuals must know what is at stake in decision making.
IV. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Separately, any of these barriers could be used positively for communication. They become barriers when they are misused. The barriers to communication include physical separation, status differences, gender differences, cultural diversity, and language that can impair effective communication in a workplace.
A. Physical Separation
Physical separation in the workplace makes it difficult, and often awkward, for employees to interact. This is one of the primary arguments against telecommuting. Some organizations use meetings and after work gatherings to overcome the separation created by some of our technological advances.
B. Status Differences
Employees must feel that they can honestly relate thoughts and ideas upward in the organization. If they are conscious of status differences and fearful that those differences will be used against them, they will be reluctant to criticize or suggest to a supervisor. Effective communication skills make supervisors more approachable and can diminish the negative effects of status differences.
C. Gender Differences
Research indicates that men and women employ different conversation styles when communicating, and these different styles may result in serious communication problems.
D. Cultural Diversity
Differences in value systems may cause confusion and misinterpretation in employee interactions with other employees or with supervisors.
E. Language
Increasing cultural diversity brings with it problems in communication related to differences in values and interaction patterns. Obviously, employees who speak different native languages may have difficulty understanding each other or their supervisors. Differences in interaction patterns can also result in confusion and mistinterpretation.
V. DEFENSIVE AND NONDEFENSIVE COMMUNICATION
A. Defensive Communication at Work
Defensive communication can be aggressive, attacking and angry, or passive and withdrawing. On the other hand, nondefensive communication is assertive, direct, and powerful.
1. Subordinate Defensiveness
Some people with low self-esteem and those at lower levels of the organization may be prone to subordinate defensiveness in communication, characterized by passive, submissive, withdrawing behavior.
2. Dominant Defensiveness
Others with low self-esteem and those at higher levels of the organization may exhibit dominant defensiveness in communication, characterized by active, aggressive, attacking behavior.
B. Defensive Tactics
Table 8.2 on defensive tactics provides a categorical way to label and analyze defensive tactics. Understanding these tactics (power plays, put-downs, labeling, raising doubts, misleading information, scapegoating, hostile jokes, and deception) helps supervisors and employees respond more effectively to defensive communication. Challenge 8.2 is particularly useful for helping students understand their own defensive communication.
C. Nondefensive Communication
It is useful to remind students that nondefensive communication is very powerful and direct. Some students assume that this is not an assertive position. On the contrary, it is the healthy, constructive alternative to defensive communication.
VI. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Most meaning in a message (as much as 65-90 percent) is conveyed through nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication that do not involve language. It is important to note that nonverbal behavior varies dramatically from one culture to the next.
A. Proxemics
Proxemics, or the perception and use of space, varies among individuals, and especially from culture to culture.
Students may understand the zones of territorial space better by asking them at what distance they would be comfortable in various situations. For example, what is the zone of distance for riding in an elevator with only one other person?
B. Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements, including posture. We read individuals through their movements. For example, students presenting in class often use excessive hand gestures, indicating their nervousness in being in front of others.
C. Facial and Eye Behavior
A good way to help students understand facial and eye behavior is to ask them to watch people on lunch hour. In eating establishments that business workers frequent, one can often tell whether they are eating with peers, supervisors, or subordinates by watching their facial and eye behavior.
D. Paralanguage
Paralanguage includes variations in pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, and crying. Ask students if they believe we stereotype based on paralanguage more than other characteristics.
E. How Accurately Do We Decode Nonverbal Cues?
People tend to believe they are better at decoding nonverbal cues than they actually are.
VII. COMMUNICATING THROUGH NEW TECHNOLOGIES
A. Written Communication
Many individuals avoid written communication because they do not believe they are skilled in expressing their thoughts in writing. It is also considered less personal in many situations. Written communication has the advantage of high to moderate data capacity, but may also have the disadvantage of moderate to low information richness.
B. Communication Technologies
New communication technologies include electronic mail, voice mail, fax machines, and cell phones. While these technologies greatly enhance the speed of communication, they cannot convey the nonverbal cues that make up a significant portion of the message.
C. How Do Communication Technologies Affect Behavior?
New communication technologies are typically more impersonal, and may result in less patience with one-to-one communication as a much slower form of communication. New technologies provide the opportunity for us to multitask, which may have drawbacks when we need to focus closely on one problem at a time. We can be overloaded with information and will need to be more conscious of filtering information.
VIII. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: COMMUNICATE WITH STRENGTH AND CLARITY
IX. LOOKING BACK: Patagonia Informs Customers and Consumers
CHAPTER SUMMARY
* The perceptual screens of communicators and listeners either help clarify or distort a message that is sent and received. Age, gender, and culture influence the sent and received messages.
* Reflective listening involves affirming contact, paraphrasing what is expressed, clarifying the implicit, reflecting "core" feelings, and using appropriate nonverbal behavior to enhance communication.
* The best supervisors talk easily with diverse groups of people, listen empathetically, are generally persuasive and not directive, are sensitive to a person’s self-esteem, and are communication minded.
* Physical separation, status differences, gender differences, cultural diversity, and language are potential communication barriers that can be overcome.
* Active or passive defensive communication destroys interpersonal relationships, whereas assertive, nondefensive communication leads to clarity.
* Nonverbal communication includes the use of territorial space, seating arrangements, facial gestures, eye contact, and paralanguage. Nonverbal communication varies by nation and culture around the world.
* New communication technologies include electronic mail, voice mail, fax machines, and cell phones. High-tech innovations require high touch responses.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What different components of a person's perceptual screen may distort communication?
Perceptual screens are composed of the personal factors each person brings to interpersonal communication, such as age, gender, values, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influences, and individual needs.
2. What are the three defining features of reflective listening?
Reflecting listening can be characterized as personal, feeling-oriented, and responsive.
3. What are the four levels of verbal response in reflective listening?
They include affirming contact, paraphrasing expressed thoughts and feelings, clarifying implicit thoughts and feelings, and reflecting "core" feelings not fully expressed.
4. Compare one-way communication and two-way communication.
With one-way communication, a message is sent to the receiver, soliciting no feedback, questions or interaction. Two-way communication is more time consuming, and requests interaction from the recipient of the message. In general, we prefer two-way communication because it allows for feedback and verification of intent.
5. What are the five communication skills of effective supervisors and managers?
The skills include expressive speaking, empathetic listening, persuasive leading, sensitivity to feelings, and informative managing.
6. Describe dominant and subordinate defensive communication. Describe nondefensive communication.
Dominant defensive communication is characterized by active, aggressive, attacking behavior, and expresses the psychological attitude, " I am right, and you are wrong." Subordinate defensive communication is characterized by passive, submissive, withdrawing behavior. The psychological attitude is "you are right, and I am wrong." Nondefensive communication is centered, assertive, and honest. It demonstrates self-control without rejecting the listener.
7. What four kinds of nonverbal communication are important in interpersonal relationships?
Proxemics, which is the perception and use of space, is a major indicator for comfort in communication. In addition, kinesics refers to the meaningfulness of gestures. Facial expressions, eye behavior, and paralanguage are also part of nonverbal communication.
8. What are helpful nonverbal behaviors in the communication process? Unhelpful behaviors?
Gestures, facial expressions, and body postures have different meanings in different cultures. Helpful behaviors include eye contact, nodding, and other affirmative behaviors. Unhelpful behaviors include looking away when talking, failing to acknowledge greetings, glares, rolling of the eyes, sighing, crossing arms and leaning way, peering over glasses, and continuing to read while someone is speaking.
9. Identify at least five new communication technologies.
Electronic mail, voice mail, fax, cell phones, teleconferencing, and video phones, among others, are relatively new technologies.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Who is the best communicator you know? Why do you consider that person to be so?
Many students will name a prominent figure because they can more readily express why they think the person is a good communicator. Others will identify individuals they actually know. The difficult aspect of this question is to get them to analyze why those individuals are good communicators.
2. Who is the best listener you have ever known? Describe what that person does that makes him
or her so good at listening.
Most often this will be a family member, and the most typical response is someone who is skilled at reflective listening, especially as an empathetic listener. Be sure to point out to students that two-way communication is an important element of this question.
3. What methods have you found most helpful in overcoming barriers to communication that are physical? That are status based? That are cultural? That are linguistic?
This question provides an excellent opportunity for international students to contribute to class discussions.
4. Who makes you the most defensive when you talk with that person? What does the person do that makes you so defensive or uncomfortable?
Ask students to characterize the individual, rather than naming the individual. Some students might be bold enough to mention professors. Encourage students to focus on specific behaviors rather than personalities.
5. With whom are you the most comfortable and nondefensive in conversation? What does the person do that makes you so comfortable or nondefensive?
Typical answers are friends and partners. Mentors should have these characteristics as well. As in the previous question, encourage students to focus on specific behaviors rather than personalities.
6. What nonverbal behaviors do you find most helpful in others when you are attempting to talk with them? When you try to listen to them?
You could have students tell you what nonverbal clues you send while lecturing. Are there annoying habits that get in the way of your information (i.e., twisting a paper clip, the inflection in your voice, etc.)?
7. Identify a person at work or at the university who is difficult to talk to and arrange an interview in which you practice good reflective listening skills. Ask the person questions about a topic in which you think he or she is interested. Pay particular attention to being patient, calm, and nonreactive. After the interview, summarize what you learned.
Have the students share what they learned from this interview in class. Following are some questions that will help stimulate class discussion. What were the difficulties they encountered using reflective listening skills? How did this conversation compare with previous conversations the student had with this person? What reflective listening skills were most difficult to use and why?
8. Go to the library and read about communication problems and barriers. Write a memo categorizing the problems and barriers you find in the current literature (last five years). What changes do organizations or people need to make to solve these problems?
In addition to enhancing students’ skills at memo writing, this activity highlights for students the most current communication problems. In identifying solutions to these problems, encourage students to move beyond the suggestions in the textbook and to think creatively about their solutions.
9. Develop a role-playing activity for class that demonstrates defensive (dominant or subordinate) and nondefensive communication. Write brief role descriptions that classmates can act out.
Not only does this activity enhance understanding of defensive and non-defensive communication, but it also can be a lot of fun and a good way to get to know class members.
10. Read everything you can find in the library about a new communication technology. Write a two-page memo summarizing what you have learned and the conclusions you draw about the new technology’s advantages and disadvantages.
Take time in class for several students to share the information they gathered on a new communication technology. You can also discuss the environments in which each new communication technology might be most/least effective.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Suppose that you have heard informally that one of your best friends at work is going to be fired. Should you tell your friend or not?
The credibility of the source or your information must be considered. Regardless, the source should be confronted and told that you are going to follow up on the information. Whether to tell the individual may be easier to decide after you gather additional information.
2. If you believe that someone you are working with is lying about the work and deceiving your boss, but you do not have clear proof of it, what should you do?
After confronting the individual, you may want to allow that person to step forward. In terms of being a reflective listener, it is necessary to be sure that what you think you understand is truly the issue and that you have all of the facts.
3. Assume you are a good, empathetic listener. Someone at work confides in you concerning wrongdoing, yet does not ask your advice about what to do. Should you tell the person what to do? Encourage the person to confess? Report the person?
You may want to analyze your approach to see what signals you have provided that allowed the other individual to assume that you were not going to act on this information. This is similar to someone misreading you and telling you a racist or sexist joke and expecting you to find it humorous. That person has placed you in an unacceptable position by informing you of the situation. Relate this back to the individual as quickly as possible.
4. Should you leave confidential messages on a voice mail system in someone's office because you assume that only that person will listen to the voice mail? Can you be confident about the security of an electronic mail system?
Most individuals pick up their own mail. An increasing advantage of voice mail is the accompanying requirement of a password to pick up your messages. If you are unsure, and the information is crucial, it is inappropriate to leave the message on voice mail. The same guidelines would apply to electronic mail, although system security varies.
CHALLENGES
8.1 ARE YOU A GOOD LISTENER?
Class discussion might focus on which of the ten tips are most difficult to implement and why. Also discuss specific, practical ways students can implement each of the tips.
8.2 WHAT KIND OF A DEFENDER ARE YOU?
As a follow up to this challenge, students might be encouraged to develop an action plan for overcoming their tendencies toward defensiveness.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
8.1 COMMUNICATE, LISTEN, UNDERSTAND
One of the biggest barriers to effective communication between people is the natural tendency to judge or evaluate the communication before it is fully understood. This especially happens during times of conflict, opposition, disagreement, boredom, or extreme agreement. More effective communication will result if a clear message is sent and the other person really listens and understands the message as it is intended to be understood. One way you can be sure that you understand the other person as he or she intends for you to understand is to make a listening check. A listening check is merely a summary in your own words of what you understand the other person to have said. If you have misunderstood the message, it gives you the opportunity to hear it again and really gain an understanding before moving on in the conversation. The ability to skillfully make listening checks is crucial in all human interactions and especially crucial when you are in a managerial role. To gain skills in utilizing listening checks, there will be three rounds of conversations. During each round, two people will have a conversation while the other person acts as an observer. One of the two people will initiate the conversation. However, it is two-way conversation.
Introduce the activity by saying, “since the management process is performed through communicating with others, our focus in this session will be on communication skill building. We are going to do a skill-building exercise in groups of threes, triads. Letter off A, B, and C and go to an area of the room in which you can carry on a private conversation.” Each round of conversation will last 5-8 minutes. Call time at the end of each round, reminding students about switching roles. Following round three, give students time to respond to the questions listed in Step 5 of the textbook exercise. Have each group share its responses to the questions with the class. More detailed descriptions of each round follow.
Round 1. In this round, A picks one of the controversial topics that are posted and initiates a conversation with B. A and B carry on a two-way conversation while observing the following rule. Before either A or B may speak, they must summarize to the other what the person has just said to the satisfaction of the speaker. If they summarize back to the other one and it does not satisfy the other, they must hear the statement or comment again and keep summarizing until it meets the satisfaction of the one who spoke last. No new statement or any other response may be given until the last person who spoke is satisfied that the other person has understood what was said. Again, it is to be a two-way conversation, but you must summarize back to the last person what they just said to their satisfaction before you can add any new information. Once you have summarized it, you can make some statements about your position on the topic, then the other person must summarize back to your satisfaction, before she or he can add any new information.
During this round, C is the observer. As the observer, you are to referee and enforce the ground rules. If A or B interrupt each other and start talking before they have summarized, you stop them and remind them that they must summarize what the last person said before they can make their own statement.
Round 2. During this round, B and C will have a discussion. B will pick a topic off the list posted and begin the conversation with C. It is a two-way conversation, but the only free statement is the first statement. After that, the other person must make a listening check before any new information can be added.
A will be the observer, so enforce the ground rules.
Round 3. During this round, C will start the conversation with A, and B will be the observer. It is important that the observer enforce the ground rules of requiring a listening check before adding information.
Potential list of controversial topics:
gun control
background checks on airline passengers
assisted suicide
restrictions on tobacco advertising
abortion
provision of welfare benefits to illegal aliens
affirmative action programs
add your own topics of special interest to your university or community
8.2 PREPARING FOR AN EMPLOYMENT-SELECTION INTERVIEW
According to David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron (Developing Management Sills: Applied Communication Skills. New York: HarperCollins, 1993), the employment-selection interview is one of three important organizational interviews in which applied communication skills are essential. The other two types of interviews are the information-gathering interview and the performance-appraisal interview.
Whetten and Cameron suggest that the supervisor use a PEOPLE-Oriented Process in preparing for and conducting the employment-selection interview. There are six guidelines for the supervisor in conducting the interview using this process.
P-Prepare: The supervisor should review the person’s application, resume, transcripts, and other background information. Using these materials, along with the company’s job description and performance evaluation form(s), the supervisor should prepare both general and individually-specific questions. Finally, prepare the physical setting in a suitable and professional manner.
E-Establish Rapport: It is important for the supervisor to help the applicant feel comfortable and to communicate a genuine interest in the candidate. The supervisor should create a supportive attitude through both verbal and nonverbal communication.
O-Obtain Information: Asking questions and probing, without prying, for information is important. It is equally important to listen attentively and carefully to what the applicant has to say. The supervisor should also observe the applicant’s dress, mannerism, and body language.
P-Provide Information: Remember that the interview is two-way communication. The supervisor should describe current and future job opportunities, present the organization in a positive light, and respond to the applicant’s questions.
L-Lead to Close: The supervisor should clarify any responses from the applicant and close by explaining what happens next in the overall process.
E-Evaluate: The supervisor should evaluate the match between the applicant’s technical qualifications and the job requirements. The supervisor should probably judge the applicant’s personal qualities, such as maturity and leadership, before making a final recommendation on the candidate.
If the supervisor uses the PEOPLE approach to the employment-selection interview, the applicant or candidate can use the PPOE approach to this interview. There are four guidelines for the applicant to achieve a successful interview.
P-Prepare: The applicant should talk with people familiar with the organization and conduct library research on the organization, if possible. The applicant should be an informed interviewee and have questions prepared based on this background investigation. Finally, the applicant should dress in a suitable manner for the interview.
P-Provide Information: The interviewer in the organization will probably ask questions first, so the applicant should be prepared to answer questions about his or her application and resúmé. It is important to be nondefensive and forthright during this part of the interview.
O-Obtain Information: The applicant should be assertive in asking questions that have emerged from the preparation for the interview. The applicant should make sure that his or her key questions are answered.
E-Evaluate: The applicant should assess the degree of fit between the organization and his or her skills, abilities, values and interests. The applicant should determine whether he or she wants any additional information.
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
DEGREES OF TRUTH IN FEEDBACK
Instructor's Notes:
The following incident is an avoidance situation between car pooling work colleagues. The students are asked to decide how to respond to a direct question about Rachel's potential as a manager. Jack runs through the possible answers mentally. Students are asked to provide the answer they believe is most appropriate, as well as why the rejected answers would not be adequate. The guidelines below allow specific criticism for the rejected options available to Frank.
Giving Useful Feedback:
Give feedback with a constructive intent.
Don't punish in the name of feedback. If you want to be helpful, do so in a way that seems likely to work, but do not assume responsibility for how the receiver uses the feedback, nor for his or her feelings. Offer feedback as your gift that the receiver must accept, use, or ignore, as he or she prefers.
Be descriptive rather than judgmental.
Feedback is a chance to see yourself or your behavior through another’s eyes. Say, for example, "your illustration was very concrete" rather than "that was a great illustration."
Be specific rather than general.
"When you said you were upset, I was surprised" is more specific than "I never know where you are coming from." When you are specific the other person knows how to "do it again" if they so choose.
Give feedback in terms of your own perspective rather than an "absolute truth."
"I was pleased when you commented on my presentation", and "I" statement, is more accurate than the generalization "we all like to get comments on our presentations."
Give feedback as close as possible to the time the behavior takes place.
If you believe it is necessary, let the receiver "cool off" a bit first. But remember that it is difficult to recall and reconstruct events, feelings, motives, etc., that occurred long ago.
Give feedback when it is desired.
Don't waste feedback on people who are bent on resisting it. If you want to take care of yourself, confront the person instead.
Give feedback on things that can be changed.
Don't waste time and emotional energy on things the person cannot change.
DEGREES OF TRUTH IN FEEDBACK
Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville
For the scenario described below, consider the appropriateness of the feedback examples provided.
Jack and Rachel have been car pooling for about a year. Though they do not socialize much outside of work (nor interact much at work), they have a very friendly relationship during the half hour or so they are together each morning and each evening. Jack thinks of Rachel as a friend, and apparently Rachel feels the say way, as they often share insights about how they feel about their jobs, families, etc. Jack sees Rachel as a nice person, though perhaps overly rigid about how other people look at the world. Rachel has often said that she feels that her boss "doesn't treat her like someone who is being considered for promotion to a supervisory job.” She asks Jack "do you see me as supervisor material?"
Critique each of the following responses Jack might give in terms of the guidelines for useful interaction:
a. "Hey, I think you would make a great supervisor. I'm sure it would be a challenge to anyone, but you'd do just fine. Why don't you go in there and tell your boss that you want to know when you are going to be promoted?"
b. "I really don't know. If you're not happy now, you should certainly give it a try. But don't worry about it until you have to cross that bridge, though."
c. "Look, Rachel, I'm your friend, so I'll tell you straight. You're too neurotic about things. People don't like the way you come on strong all the time. Nobody's going to understand where you're coming from like I do because they don't spend the time with you that I do."
d. "I think I would feel comfortable working for you. Just this afternoon I've given my opinion about the merger and about the NAFTA decision, and you didn't try to tell me I was wrong about either, even though you obviously disagree. But I must admit that you didn't ask for my opinion about either one."
e. "Well, I think you sometimes seem a bit opinionated. Of course everyone usually has opinions, and yours are probably as good as anyone's. But maybe you'd be better off if on occasion you would ask for other people's opinions more."
MBTI EXERCISE
Communications
Exercise Learning Objectives:
a. Students will experience the different ways that people view things.
b. Students should understand that the different methods of "seeing the world" exist everywhere all the time.
c. Students should understand that being "different" in the way we see and react to our environment is a strength.
Exercise Overview:
a. Students should have taken the full MBTI, or the short version in Chapter 3 of the text.
b. Students will be formed into like-temperament types.
c. Groups will be triads with two participants and one observer.
d. The instructor should know how members of each temperament group function and react to the environment.
Exercise Description:
1. Ask the students to form a large group based on their temperament (NT, NF, SJ, SP).
2. Divide the large groups into triads if possible. (Dyads will also work, but the role of the instructor as observer becomes more critical. The instructor will need to observe the entire group as well as individually observe the dyads.)
3. Ask each group to select an observer. The observer's attention must be focused on the group process, i.e., how these individuals relate to one another. The observer should be able to answer questions such as: How did the individuals in the group interact with one another? What was the communication pattern among team members? How did the group arrive at its conclusions?
4. Give each group a large piece of "flip chart" paper and at least four crayons or marking pens.
5. Ask each group to "draw a flower" without talking. Each participant takes turns drawing a stroke--the first participant puts down the first line and then must wait for the second participant to draw the second line. Remember NO TALKING. The OBSERVER watches the process and takes notes looking for nonverbal clues.
6. This exercise should last about 5 minutes.
7. The instructor asks the observers to report their findings to the observed group. (Allow 5 minutes). The instructor has each group hang up their pictures on the wall so the entire class can see them.
8. The instructor should select a few observers to report to the entire group. The instructor should close this part of the exercise by reprocessing and highlighting the lessons learned.
9. The second phase of this exercise puts the students in unlike temperament groups. Those who observed now become participants. Each participant should be regrouped with someone of a different temperament.
10. Assign observers to look at the communications process and to concentrate on the non-verbal interactions.
11. Rerun the exercise having each group draw a flower without talking.
12. The observer should report to the group highlighting what was observed.
13. The instructor should have the participants hang up their pictures and should select two or three observers to report to the entire class.
What the instructor should expect:
a. During the first phase of this exercise, we would expect to see some minor differences in drawing the flower, but the participants should almost be "communicating" clearly without talking. Pens or crayons should be easily shared and the flower should look as though one person drew it.
b. In the second phase we would expect almost the opposite effect. The observers should see evidence of stress (withholding crayons, flinging the crayons, using different parts of the paper, etc.). We would expect to see that we truly have two different people drawing two different flowers.
Instructor's Summary:
Those people whose preference is "sensing (S)" usually demonstrate a need for details. These people focus on the present and trust known experiences. They learn sequentially (step-by-step). Additionally, they tend to be realistic, good at precise work, and like the concrete.
Those people whose preference is "intuition (N)" usually demonstrate a need for patterns and relationships. These people focus on future possibilities and anticipate what might be. They trust theory more than experience and they learn by seeing the connections or patterns.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained from:
Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.
Poor Listening Habits: Identifying and Improving Them. p. 165-168.
Time: 50-80 minutes.
Purpose: To help participants to identify their poor listening habits and to practice
effective listening skills.
Feedback: Interpersonal Relationships in Groups. p. 169-170. Time: 50 minutes.
Purpose: To learn effective methods of interpersonal feedback in order to develop a
cohesive group.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience, West Publishing Company, 1994.
Practicing Effective Oral Communication. p. 165-181.
In Basket Exercise 1-5.
CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS IN PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL
1. Explain how perceptual screens from the basic interpersonal communication model can be applied to understanding the experiences of foreign players.
Perceptual screens are the windows through which we interact with other people. Perceptual screens in interpersonal communication include personal factors such as age, gender, values, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influences, and individual needs.
The perceptual screens of values, beliefs, past experiences, and cultural influences are either clearly apparent or implied in this case. While the case focuses on two players from Korea, mention is made of players from Japan, Latin America, and the United States. There would be obvious differences in values, beliefs, past experiences, and cultural influences with such a diverse contingent of players. Examples from the case that reflect one or more of these perceptual screens include the following:
• Culturally related dietary habits.
• Lee’s unfounded worries about dying during surgery.
• The mound conference involving Latin American infielders, a Japanese catcher, a Korean pitcher, and their respective interpreters.
Students should be encouraged to go beyond the case facts, and engage in some brainstorming regarding differences that they perceive to exist in the perceptual screens of different ethnic groups or nationalities.
2. What communication barriers exist between foreign players and American players?
Barriers to communication include physical separation, status differences, gender differences, cultural diversity, and language. Status and gender differences do not play a role in this case. Cultural diversity and language are major communications barriers, while physical separation represents a somewhat more subtle communication barrier.
Language differences and cultural diversity are two very powerful communication barriers in American professional baseball. Quite often, foreign players cannot speak any English or can do so only with considerable difficulty. They may also experience culture shock due to different behavioral expectations and social customs in America as compared to their homelands.
Usually, physical separation as a communication barrier refers to the lack of substantive face-to-face opportunities for communicating with other people in the workplace. In short, physical isolation in the workplace interferes with interpersonal communication. For Seung Lee and Il Kim, however, isolation was induced by the physical separation from their families and/or homelands and from their temporary separation from each other during Lee’s surgery and rehabilitation. This isolation, coupled with the aforementioned language and cultural barriers, made interpersonal communication with the other players and coaches difficult.
3. What can managers and coaches do to communicate effectively with foreign baseball players who do not speak English, or do not speak it well?
The students should draw on the text material regarding the “five keys to effective supervisory communication” in answering this question. In communicating with their players, coaches can try to:
• Be expressive speakers regarding their thoughts, ideas, and feelings.
• Be empathetic listeners who use reflective listening skills and who are patient with and responsive to the players’ problems.
• Be persuasive leaders rather than directive and autocratic leaders.
• Be sensitive to the feelings, self-image, and psychological defenses of their players.
• Keep their players well informed.
The second and fourth bulleted items are probably the more crucial elements in dealing with foreign players. While the language barrier remains until the players acquire at least basic English skills, perhaps coaches can best facilitate communication by being empathetic and sensitive and communicating that to their foreign players through the players’ interpreters.
Role Plays
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this instructor's manual.