Human Performance Technology

Originally appeared in the Handbook of Human Performance Technology - Copyright © 1999 by the International Society for Performance Improvement

SKILL SETS, CHARACTERISTICS AND VALUES FOR THE HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGIST
Harold D. Stolovitch, Erica J. Keeps & Daniel Rodrigue

The purpose of this chapter is to suggest sets of skills, characteristics and values necessary for the practice of Human Performance Technology (HPT) today and in the future. To do this, the chapter examines the nature of HPT, particularly as it relates to and compares with other apparently similar fields. As it unfolds, the chapter discriminates between the unique character of the human performance (HP) technologist and other professionals that populate the already crowded world of business consulting. It also raises some fundamental questions. Are HP technologists treading on other professional turfs? If not, how does one characterize HPT’s uniqueness as well as its value to organizations? Is HPT a profession per se? If yes, who should identify the required skill sets for this profession? Certainly as HPT’s span of practice expands across the globe and its practitioners intervene in ever more diverse areas, a critical question to ask is whether one should reasonably expect any single HPT practitioner to possess complete working knowledge of all the potential tools that can be applied in the field. In addition, there are many who would like to have HPT become officially “recognized” as a profession. Should there be a set of professional standards and/or some kind of a certification process? Should it be national or international in nature? Finally, the chapter asks how HPT professionals should be educated and kept up-to-date in this constantly expanding field.
One of the best ways to recognize and define a professional field is by observing what its practitioners do. From this observation, we can then deduce an initial skill set, key characteristics and values required to perform professionally. As an example, physicians are clearly involved with health. They examine the human body and diagnose problems or malfunctions based on learned theories and practices. They recommend some form of therapy on the basis of clearly defined standards. Similarly, musicians deal with music. Their work consists of analyzing a composition, practicing it on their instruments and then performing for their audiences. In each of these examples, by studying what the practitioner does, we can begin to logically derive the skill sets, characteristics and values each lives by. What of HPT? Mager (1992a) suggests that since HPT is concerned with human performance, HPT practitioners should be observed doing whatever it is they do with respect to human performance matters. By clearly defining the object or focus of their work, much as a physician or musician, we can begin to identify the skills required to perform as a professional. We can also deduce what type of person best fits the practice requirements. However, we must first start by defining what we mean by HPT.

What is HPT and what does it mean operationally?

The literature provides numerous, but related definitions of HPT. Hutchison (1989, p. 6) cites the National Society for Performance and Instruction definition: "HPT is a set of methods and processes for solving problems or realizing opportunities related to the performance of people. It may be applied to the performance of single individuals or large organizations. It is characterized by the following features: it is systematic; it views performance in terms of inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback; it is data-based; its methods are derived from experimentation and research; it is operational; it attempts to define its results in measurable terms and its methods in ways that allow others to reliably apply them."
Svenson & Wallace (1989, p. 1) reduces this long statement to a more succinct form, defining HPT as “a powerful collection of theory and methods that enables systematic maximization of any organization's performance". Gilbert (1992, p. xiv) adds that "our focus is on human accomplishment, the valuable output of behavior". This is in keeping with Nichols (1977) comments in characterizing performance as "the outcomes of behavior. Behavior is individual activity whereas the outcomes of behavior are the ways in which the behaving individual's environment is somehow different as a result of his or her behavior."

This leads us to conclude that the HPT professional’s activities are focused on improving performance. In operational terms, this suggests that, he or she must be able to define the desired level of valued performance, the current state, accurately measure the distance between these two and propose, design, perhaps even help implement cost-effective interventions to close the gap. The preceding sentence describes somewhat concisely the HPT process and presents a first cut at the basic skills required of an HPT professional. As a starting point, when we observe HPT specialists this is, in fact, what we see them doing. They identify, systematically observe and quantify inadequate performance. Secondly, they recommend and help design and implement appropriate means for achieving desired human performance goals. These can be termed the basic technical or intervention skills of HPT professionals. In addition and complementary to the intervention abilities, we also observe skilled practitioners constantly talking and working with people. This means that they must also possess what are euphemistically called "people skills": communication, leadership, management, teamwork and interpersonal skills.
We noted previously that professions can be recognized or defined by observing the behavior of their practitioners. However, this is only a starting point. Delving more deeply into a field, one begins to find writings and artifacts produced by its adherents, historians and scholars. One also finds that from modest beginnings, most professions grow in diversity as their vision and range of practices develop. As an example, the medical profession in its origins was largely populated by general practitioners trying to address all health problems. Over time, it has expanded to include dozens, if not hundreds, of specialties such as neurophysiology, ophthalmology, pediatrics and cardiology.
The same principle applies to the field of HPT. From a core of activities gravitating around performance analysis and essentially instructional interventions, it has grown in scope and scale to encompass a broad range of problems and activities. One need only scan the pages of this current edition of the Handbook of Human Performance Technology to observe the extent of HPT’s territory. It is therefore not surprising that we find HP technologists working in areas that seem to overlap those of other disciplines (e.g. organizational development; ergonomics). It is also not especially remarkable to see HP technologists beginning to specialize either by organizational context, organizational level or form of intervention. The analogy with medicine continues to hold true.
Physicians may differ by specialty. Nevertheless, they all remain physicians. Something binds them together. They all share some similar form of initial training. They also learn and apply similar general principles and techniques. This common, unique approach shared by all practitioners of medicine facilitates the communication of ideas and experiences. In addition, all obtain excellent basic skills and knowledge for dealing with the various human systems such as the digestive system, the muscle system or the cardio-vascular system. The shared background allows them to recognize potential deficiencies in areas other than their own specialties and refer patients to other practitioners or to seek diagnostic and treatment advice from colleagues.
The field of HPT is evolving rapidly. It has certainly reached the point where no one practitioner can master every aspect of it. Specialization has set in. At the same time, it is also obvious that there are deep common threads among its varied practitioners. There are common models and vocabulary required for communicating and functioning together effectively. There is a need for all HPT practitioners to possess a common, solid, shared, general foundation. What is it? Where does it come from? How does it affect the definition of skill sets for HPT professionals?

Origins and Underlying Assumptions of HPT

To understand the current skill set of HP technologists, it is useful to begin with a brief retrospective. HPT "is a relatively new field that has emerged from the coalescing of principles derived from the carefully documented practice of thoughtful behavioral psychologists, instructional technologists, training designers, organizational developers, and various human resource specialists." (Stolovitch & Keeps, 1992, p. 3)

HPT's roots lie in behaviorism and Skinner's work that demonstrated how "small-step instruction, coupled with extensive feedback, could significantly enhance learning." (Skinner, 1954,1958 cited by Rosenberg, Coscarelli & Hutchison, 1992, p. 16). Skinner's behavioral cause and effect discoveries, led to a series of developments: from the teaching machine in the 1950's, to the programmed instructional design process in the early 1960's and onward to computer assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1960's and 70's (Deutsch, 1992). This heritage helps explain why current HPT practitioners, searching to uncover the root causes of performance inadequacy, focus so strongly on the identification and analysis of stimuli within a system that may trigger certain responses and the consequences they engender. (Stolovitch & Keeps, 1998).
As research and theory in other related fields have evolved, these have affected practitioners dedicated to improving human performance. Specifically, Rosenberg, Coscarelli & Hutchison (1992) have identified a number of disciplines as exerting major influence on today's HPT practice. Among these are systems theory, learning psychology, instructional systems design, cognitive engineering, information technology, ergonomics and human factors engineering, psychometrics, feedback systems and organizational development.
The foregoing allows us to gain insight into where many of HPT's current practitioners have acquired their background knowledge. In addition, a number of practitioners have come into the field with previous experience as instructional technology managers, course designers and training specialists. The skills acquired in these positions have markedly influenced their vision of organizations. A large proportion of HPT professionals have migrated from instruction to the much broader domain of performance (Robinson and Robinson, 1998).

Underlying assumptions with respect to skills

To define a set of skills for HPT requires an understanding of what has gone into the development of its current practitioners. So far we have addressed observation of what practitioners do and information about the knowledge and experience base they possess. One more ingredient is also required before dealing with skill sets. This is the critical underlying assumptions and view of the field that guide HPT professional actions.
First, in terms of ends, HP technologists do not view their field as a traditional scientific discipline such as physics or psychology. For them, HPT is not primarily focused on creating new knowledge or establishing universal truths. Rather, they see it is an applied field of practice, one that seeks "results from the utilization of meanings from the fundamental disciplines...Phenix (1964)." For HP technologists, HPT is structured primarily by real-world problems of human performance which explains the reason for characterizing itself as an applied field of practice and not as a discipline. Foshay and Moller (1992, p. 702) capture its essence by stating: "It draws from any discipline that has prescriptive power in solving any human performance problem. It also may draw from other applied fields, when they contribute technologies of use in solving human performance problems." This is a field of application that exploits scientific knowledge and method to very practical ends.
Second, with respect to means, HP professionals view the field as a performance science because of its methodology. It contains the three elements described by Gilbert & Gilbert (1989, p. 7) needed to define such a science. It possesses its own subject matter: human accomplishments. It is able to apply strict measures: the potential for improved performance as well as human accomplishment. Finally, it offers prediction and control -- of human behavior and its outcomes, in this case. As Gilbert and Gilbert point out, science is "a little methodology and a few good tricks, rigorously and systematically applied." This statement summarizes well the practice of HPT.
Third, HPT as a field of applied science builds its theoretical base on the following major underlying assumptions: "Human performance is lawful and can be predicted and controlled. Knowledge of human behavior is limited, and thus HPT must rely on practical experience as well as scientific research. HPT draws from many research bases while generating its own. HPT is the product of a number of knowledge sources: cybernetics, behavioral psychology, communications theory, information theory, systems theory, management science, and, more recently, the cognitive sciences. HPT is neither committed to any particular delivery system nor confined to any specific population and subject area. It can address any human performance, but it is commonly applied within organizational and work settings. HPT is empirical. It requires systematic verification of the results of both its analysis and intervention efforts. HPT is evolving. Based on guiding principles, it nevertheless allows enormous scope for innovation and creativity. Although HPT cannot pretend to have a firm theoretical foundation of its own, the theory- and experience-based principles that guide it are molded by empirical data that accumulate as a result of documented, systematic practice. In many ways, HPT shares attributes with other applied fields (management, organizational development, medicine, psychiatry)." (Geis, 1986, as cited by Stolovitch & Keeps, 1992, pp. 5-6).
In summary, HPT specialists see their field as aimed at dealing with practical human performance matters in a scientific manner and based on a broad set of respectable theoretical and empirical foundations. The essential ingredients for presenting HPT required skills appears at hand. Yet before they can be uniquely defined, it is necessary to discriminate between HPT and other applied fields of practice with what at first glance appear to be similar perspectives.

What Makes HPT Unique?

HPT practitioners claim four unique strengths for solving human performance problems. They assert that each of these separately distinguishes them from other apparently similar fields of practice. What follows is a brief summary of each claimed strength.

HPT unique strengths

The first claimed strength is HPT's ability to combine and integrate multiple interventions and technologies for improving human performance. The HP technologist views human and organizational systems as complex. Rarely does a single intervention have lasting effect. A host of variables generally influence performance outcomes. This means that a basket of interventions as diverse as redesign of the environment, change of incentives, upgrading of skills and creation of job aids may be required for a relatively straightforward performance gap (Stolovitch and Keeps, 1998). As Rosenberg, Coscarelli & Hutchison (1992, p. 25) assert, "the usefulness [of HPT] lies in the assumption that combinations of interventions, taken from a variety of fields, provide greater value when applied to a performance problem/opportunity than any specific intervention does when used alone." Other specialized professionals such as Organizational Development specialists tend not to possess the range and repertoire to integrate multiple disciplines and technologies in the design of their interventions. HP technologists, on the other hand, proactively seek to identify and integrate ideas from a variety of sources and disciplines as a natural part of their activities. The combination and integration process per se is viewed as greatly enhancing the value of what they do.
The second strength is that no other professional group dealing with organizations is capable of bringing to bear as broad a range of skills on the analysis and solution of human performance problems (Foshay & Moller, 1992). The variety of disciplines from which HPT derives its theoretical base allows it to apply a vast array of analytic and intervention procedures to specific situations. This is particularly true "in the perspective of the models used to diagnose performance problems, to select appropriate interventions, and to measure the results" (Foshay & Moller, 1992, p. 702). Other types of practitioners tend to have a narrower view or a more limited set of capabilities. The HP specialist is able to conduct highly refined performance analyses, create a wide variety of instructional and non-instructional interventions and design scientifically crafted implementation, evaluation and long-term monitoring systems to ensure desired performance.
The unique weltanschauung or "view of the world" of HPT specialists forms the third strength. The conceptual approach and framework of HPT allow practitioners to characterize in precise terms the nature of performance gaps, their causes, the variables affecting performance and the specification of appropriate actions. HP specialists view organizations as adaptive systems. They can focus their work on "three levels of performance variables that ultimately determine the performance of organizations and individuals: the organization, process, and job/performer levels" (Rummler & Brache, 1996, p. 35). There are few other fields of practice that are equipped to analyze performance problems from such a multiple level viewpoint. HPT specialists are steeped in system thinking and have no difficulties in maintaining an organic view of human and organizational behavior (Dean and Ripley, 1997).
The fourth strength is the rigorous application of the HPT systematic process by its practitioners. This process transforms viewpoint into action. It includes activities in five clearly defined phases: the problem or opportunity definition phase; the analysis phase, the design and development phase, the implementation and maintenance phase and the evaluation phase. It is through rigorous application of specific, well-defined procedures that HP practitioners have built their reputation. This does not imply that other specialized fields of practice do not use strict, systematic processes as they apply their own tools and techniques to a problem. However, this fourth HPT strength sends a clear signal that the application of this process is a fundamental part of the HP technologist's profession.
Many of the foundations are now in place for defining the required HPT skill set. However, one more task must still be performed. Despite the claims of being unique, confusion still exists between HPT and other professional specialties. To define a skill set requires that one first establish the limits of the domain. It is obvious that there is some overlap between HPT and other fields dealing with organizational and work performance. However, there are also defining borders for each. Where does HPT start/stop and other fields begin? And with which other fields are we concerned?

With whom can the HP Technologist be confused?

A number of other applied fields of practice such as instructional technology, human resource management, training, industrial engineering, business consulting and change agentry address and solve human performance problems. They do so approaching the situations from their particular standpoints. What follows are brief descriptions of the work performed by each of these professional groups, their goals, activities as well as comparisons with HPT.

Instructional technologist (IT)

Job description: The instructional technologist analyzes performance deficiencies from a lack of skills or knowledge perspective. He or she, then designs, develops, tests, and delivers learning materials, programs or systems whose aim is to eliminate the skill and/or knowledge gap.
Goal: Improvement of skills and/or knowledge.
Target: Individual learners or learner groups.
Activities: Analysis and design of instructional products or systems.
Deliverables: Instructional products, services and systems.
Environment: Classroom, laboratory, job site.
Professional vision: Learning systems design specialist.
Similarities with HPT: Both adhere to a systems approach, conduct systematic analyses, share common antecedents (systems, communications, psychology…), focus on the causes of performance deficiencies and anticipate the obstacles that inhibit introduction of innovations.
Differences from HPT: HPT is more directly linked to business results. Measurement and marketing issues have a greater importance. HPT generally views instruction as a last resort. HPT focuses on the alignment of people, programs, policies and work systems. For HPT, conducting front end analyses to determine what the problem is and whether or not instructional interventions are really required is the normal modus operandi. HPT’s repertoire of interventions include, but also extend far beyond instruction (Rossett, 1992b, Robinson and Robinson, 1998).
With respect to improving human performance, “most practitioners tend to indicate that instructional technology is a subset of performance technology” (Hutchison, 1990). This distinction between IT and HPT professionals is an interesting one. In the same article, Hutchison also points out that 83% of all HPT interventions are still largely related to instructional technology type tactics. The obvious conclusion is that a strong relationship between these two fields continues to exist although more divergent forms of HPT interventions such as organizational design, strategic alignment, culture change and work redesign appear to be increasing in salience and frequency (Fuller, 1997; Stolovitch and Keeps, 1992).

Human Resources Management Professional

Job description: “The goal of human resource management is to enhance the productive contribution of employees to the organization” (Werther, Davis & Lee-Gosselin, 1990, p.10). The human resource department has two broad functions: to meet the organization’s needs in terms of human resources (e.g. recruiting, personnel selection, personnel evaluation, industrial relations, forecasting future personnel needs); to respond to employees’ needs (e.g. competitive salary scales, monetary and non-monetary incentives, pension plans). These two functions are accomplished by focusing on four major goals: social, organizational, functional and employee personal goals. Human resource management specialists are generally “staff personnel”. They advise or counsel “line managers”. They normally have no direct decision power or influence on personnel behavior and performance. Generally speaking, employee performance is under the direct responsibility of line managers (Werther, Davis & Lee-Gosselin, 1990, p.18). As human resource departments grow in size and complexity, human resource management personnel tend to become specialists in specific areas such as salary or compensation analysis, human resource development, labor management and human resource planning to name only a few.
Goal: Enhancement of the productive contributions of employees to the organization.
Target: The whole organization.
Activities: Company-wide compensation and incentive analysis, job definitions, recruitment, employer-employee relations, employment equity, human resource planning, human resource development and all other aspects related to personnel management.
Deliverables: Salary scales, incentive plans, pension plans, safety procedures, job advertisements, appraisal systems, equity policies, harassment policies and other products and services related to the overall management of employees throughout the organization.
Environment: The entire organization.
Professional vision: Both generalist in attending to all organizational aspects of employee management and employee relations and specialist in specific aspects of human resource management.
Similarities with HPT: Both adhere to a systems approach, rely on analysis, share a number of common antecedents (systems, communications, psychology…) and understand the need to establish suitable job incentives.
Differences from HPT: The HPT practitioner’s primary focus is attaining specific human performance outcomes. Human resource management professionals, except for the ones specialized strictly in performance improvement, are involved in a broad range of personnel and human interventions not necessarily linked to specific desired performance. Human resource management professionals’ priorities lie in the creation of systems for managing and compensating people. Their activities tend to be broad brush and general for all employee groups. When asked to intervene in specific deficiency areas by line management, they will generally bring in other specialists such as the HP technologist.

Training Specialist

Job description: The training specialist implements solutions or interventions which have been designed by IT or HPT practitioners. Their main objective is to build skills and knowledge. “The training and development specialist designs, develops, conducts, and/or evaluates learning experiences”(Longanbach, 1994).
Goal: Development of individual group skills and knowledge.
Activities: Course preparation and delivery, coaching and follow-up of learner individuals and groups.
Deliverables: Instruction and skills transfer.
Environment: Work site or classroom.
Professional vision: Specialist in helping workers to acquire skills and knowledge and in transferring these to the job.
Similarities with HPT: Both are focused on improving human performance on the job.
Differences from HPT: Training is a narrow and specific subset of HPT. It addresses only one of the causes of performance deficiencies. The training specialist focuses on skill/knowledge improvement which generally is insufficient to create lasting performance change if the environment is insufficiently supportive, workers have been poorly selected or there are motivational and incentive obstacles that inhibit transfer (Ford and Weisbein, 1997).

Organizational Development (OD) Specialist

Job description: “OD aims at changing attitudes, perceptions and people’s behavior in order to increase organizational effectiveness. OD is a systematic, planned set of efforts, used at every level of an organization to resolve human problems that seem to paralyze employee efficiency at different levels of the organization. These problems may result from any of the following: poor cooperation or communication, attitudes, confidence level, and poor interpersonal communication. Theory and practice of OD are based on the assumption that employees are interested to improve themselves and want to be a part of work groups. It is therefore important for management to develop abilities and competencies which will enhance or stimulate the employees to improve their own behavior” (Beckhard, in Bergeron, 1989, p.237).
Goal: Improved business results.
Activities: Participation in a wide range of activities including work climate diagnoses, group decision-making, creation of questionnaires for attitude/climate surveys, training activities generally focused on communication and interpersonal dynamics, introduction of means for enhancing communication among groups, group facilitation, facilitation of teams seeking structural changes, conducting of communication network studies to determine information flows and breakdowns, designing of employee career plans, conducting individual behavioral counseling sessions, objectives identification and planning (integration of personal goals to the objectives of the organization), helping to diagnose and determine management style profiles. (French & Bell, in Bergeron, 1989, p.237)
Deliverables: Products and services emanating from the OD specialist’s activities.
Environment: The whole organization or specific subsets of it.
Professional vision: In general terms, an organizational communications specialist and facilitator.
Similarities with HPT: Both HPT and OD attend to the array of variables that affect human performance. Both analyze systems to determine root causes of performance deficiency, design interventions, help implement these and monitor the results. Both also draw from some similar theoretical sources (e.g. psychology, organization behavior). HPT recognizes that enhanced communication is a key element in improving human performance which is a central theme of OD.
Differences from HPT: “OD usually starts at a macro-level. It is often initiated at the request of higher management.” (French & Bell, in Bergeron, 1989, p.237). Historically speaking, HP technologists have been called in to work at specific points in an organization, and frequently with lower level management. This is changing. As Silber (1992) reports, a number of HP consultants have begun to consult at the macro-level. HP technologists are usually directly involved in solving targeted “lack of performance” problems within a business unit, for example. While their findings may trigger work on attitudes or on overall company communications or morale problems, this is not usually the case. OD and HPT practitioners may both participate in similar kinds of activities at some point in their interventions, but their starting points are different. HP interventions that address the “cultural level” of organizations is still a recent addition to the HPT repertoire (Silber, 1992). The key discrimination between these two, however, is that OD specialists tend to focus on communication and attitude issues. They facilitate and help managers and workers make decisions on how to work better and support their implementation efforts. The HPT professional is more of a hard-core problem solver, frequently engaged in technical as well as management issues. He or she generally creates interventions and then helps with their implementation. HPT professionals have a strong affinity toward measurement and hard data. Style is also a discriminator. As Bollen and Vanasse (1994) suggest “it is perhaps the area of consultative practice that most differentiates OD from [H]PT”. In the HPT world the customer typically asks for “a solution” from the expert. In OD, the customer is made part of the solution process by becoming an involved participant. OD interventions tend to be more consultant-centered (in the facilitation sense) than HP interventions which are more product-oriented.

The Industrial Engineer

Job description: Industrial engineers analyze, design, organize, control and supervise production processes which include man-machine interfaces. The optimization of this interface is one of their key objectives.
Goal: Production output.
Activities: Analysis, diagnosis and solution of production problems.
Deliverables: Operations procedures lists, operations manuals, safety procedures, proposals to replace equipment and machinery, work flow designs and systems within the operating facility.
Environment: Generally speaking, the plant and its associated environments.
Professional vision: Production specialist.
Similarities with HPT: Both have as objectives to increase performance and to optimize the man-machine interface throughput.
Differences from HPT: The industrial engineer operates within a narrower set of environments than does the HPT professional. Industrial engineers have a greater specialized training and experience to solve specific production problems. Generally, they do not deal with the human side of the interface: the motivational, feedback or communications systems within organizations.

Others: Business Consultants and the Change Agent Specialist

Job description: There is a large variety of business consultants. Typically they specialize in management-type consulting: strategic planning, congruence analysis between the various organizational functions such as financial systems, human resources, production systems, marketing and sales. Change agent specialists are typically called in to help and counsel management prior to or in the midst of periods of major upheavals such as downsizing, reengineering, restructuring, merger with another company.
Goal: Business results.
Activities: Depending on the nature of the specialty, these specialists generally work with the highest levels of management to create macro shifts in the operation of the company.
Deliverables: Generally, a plan and timetable for implementation.
Environment: Usually the entire organization or major functions/processes within it.
Professional vision: High level specialist.
Similarities with HPT: May get involved in analysis and design activities similar to those of the HP technologist when dealing within areas that directly affect human performance. Both target improved organizational results. Both generally deal with specific, concrete measures.
Differences from HPT: HP technologists are usually called in when there is a specific issue linked to human behavior and results. Rarely will HPT specialists work, for example, on the restructuring of the company financial systems, even though the impact of what they do may have a strong impact on the company’s overall financial performance.

Pulling It all together

Several observations emerge from this brief and superficial description of the goals and activities of these applied fields of practice as well as their similarities and differences with HPT. First, all are concerned with organizational performance, but each from a specific vantage point. If at the outset, skill/knowledge deficiencies are the obvious reason for the gap between desired and actual performance, then the instructional technologist is well qualified to step in. Similarly, if a diagnosis demonstrates that company morale is a key cause of poor performance, then the services of an OD specialist will be sought. Cash flow problems affecting performance calls for its particular brand of specialist. Performance problems with clear-cut causes lead to natural selection of the most appropriate professional.
When situations are fuzzier, however, organizations are uncertain about whom they should call upon. One tendency is to turn to whoever is most familiar. Another is to select whoever is able to diagnose complex sets of interrelated issues to determine the types of interventions that should be implemented and which combination will deliver the optimal effect. This leads us to a second observation. The range and process of HPT professionals make them very attractive for a wide spectrum of performance issues. HP technologists seek to improve human performance regardless of the cause. Their ability to analyze all types of performance subsystems and their interrelationships positions them as a unique resource for identifying performance deficiency causes. Other professionals are not as equipped to handle the technical and management range across levels and environments. However, once the causes of a performance discrepancy have been isolated, the HP practitioner may then have to turn to other specialists for developing suitable interventions.
A third observation underscoring the uniqueness of the HPT professional is the conscious, directed focus on human performance and the range of methods and tools that have been developed to deal with it. The HP consultant's work is solely focused on performance emanating from the human actors in organizations and all the factors that affect it. This does not mean that the HPT professional works in isolated fashion or alone. Because HPT professionals operate across a wide territory, they can definitely benefit from learning techniques and work skills proven effective with other types of specialists. Bollen and Vanasse (1994, p. 149) strongly suggest "that [H]PT practitioners, with a knowledge of both IT and OD principles and techniques, will be equipped with a more complete set of tools for designing, recommending and implementing the most effective intervention". Additionally, learning to work in teams with these other professionals can only lead to more effective outcomes.
A fourth observation is that because of focus, skills/knowledge and constant involvement in real-life human performance situations, HP technologists are perhaps best equipped to carry out initial diagnoses. In this sense, HPT professionals can play the role of "general performance practitioner". As Rummler and Brache (1992) point out, they pinpoint the source of poor performance (e.g. motivational system inadequacy, inadequate or incomplete work processes, individual job performer's lack of skills) of any work related problem and then suggest as well as facilitate the implementation of cost-effective interventions to resolve the situation using the most appropriate specialists. This general performance practitioner capability is another special characteristic of the HP technologist. It underscores Rummler’s observation in chapter three of this Handbook about the uniqueness of the HPT field as the only technology that "endeavors to bring such a holistic framework or anatomy to issues of human performance".

The HP Professional Skill Set

All of the foregoing on HPT activities, working principles and underlying assumptions lead us to define the skills necessary to perform an HP professional’s work. As a first step in this definition, we focus on basic skills required by all practitioners. We then review some words of wisdom from experienced professionals that provide insight on the value of these skills. Next, we present skills associated with outstanding performers and include a list of additional, useful capabilities. We end by asking if any single HP practitioner can possess all the skills presented. In closing, we look to the future, attempting to discern trends and their potential impact on future skills requirements.

Basic skills required by all HPT practitioners

All HP technologists must be able to perform essential activities required by the five major phases of the HPT systematic process. The general HPT model and framework is the family link among all HP technologists. It acts as a common professional language. It enforces a systematic and scientific approach on all of its practitioners. Application of the HPT process is the core. HP practitioners need not be expert in every individual step, but all HP practitioners should be able to conduct appropriate performance analyses, design/develop interventions, and establish operational plans for implementing, monitoring and evaluating interventions with a high degree of skill and confidence.
When we refer to "skill" we mean "a practical ability and dexterity; proficiency". What follows are basic skills needed to accomplish HPT tasks. We have grouped these into two broad categories which further break down into two subsets. Category 1 lays out technical skills. These include:
• Analysis and observation skills.
• Design skills (creativity, logical thinking, media/technology knowledge).
• Evaluation skills

Category 2 deals with people skills and includes:
• Management skills (organizational and project management).
• Communication and interpersonal skills.

Category 1: Technical skills

Analysis and observation skills: The first phase of the HPT process requires strong analytical and observation skills. HP technologists must be able to examine a situation, dissect it into various elements, and determine and explain the relationships between them. They must be able to observe, and then discern which elements of a job-related task, process or situation have an impact on performance. A primary skill required of HP professionals is to be able to discriminate between exemplary and average performance since the purpose is to improve the current performance levels. Directly linked to this is the ability to recognize, observe and dissect the behavior of top performers so that they "can be emulated" (Gilbert, 1992, p. xiv) later by others.

Design skills (creativity, logical thinking, media/technology knowledge): The second and third phases of the process (design and develop) requires another set of skills that include the ability to design, orchestrate, and logically sequence a series of activities (e.g. instructions, job aids, incentives or feedback programs) that will solve the problem or improve performance. The design skills also require knowledge of the most appropriate medium and/or technology to be used for the situation. While not all interventions include technological devices, when they do, the choice has a direct impact on the speed of development and implementation of the intervention as well as on budgets. HP technologists should be able to recommend a range of implementation alternatives, each potentially differing in cost, speed of implementation and overall performance improvement impact one from another. However, all alternatives should be powerful enough to solve the performance deficiency.

Evaluation skills: Evaluation to improve or verify interventions is a critical part of the HP technologist’s job. HPT requires rigorous measurement and verification of what has been designed.

Developing evaluation strategies, building means to measure results including Return on Investment (Phillips, 1997), collecting suitable data, analyzing data and reporting how well interventions are working (as well as using the evaluation information to improve results) are essential skill requirements for the HP technologist.

Category 2: People skills

Management skills (organizational and project management skills): The final phases (Implementation/Maintenance and Evaluation) require strong managerial skills. In order to implement a solution or set of solutions successfully, an HP technologist must ensure that the intervention plan is implemented as designed and that corrective actions are applied at appropriate moments. Project management skills include the ability to properly identify project sub tasks and milestones (Greer, 1998). It involves calling meetings when appropriate and the ability to assign with the client “the right resources (e.g. skilled people, money), in correct quantity, at the right time and at the right locations” (Jackson & Addison, 1992, p. 76).
Communication and interpersonal skills: In all phases of work, the HPT professional must be able to communicate effectively orally and in writing. HP technologists continually communicate with clients, colleagues, client employees and all other persons potentially affected by the scope of the work. All HPT professionals require skills in clear, precise, simple and straight-forward communication. Similarly, interpersonal skills are essential to the success of any project that involves a number of individuals. The HP technologist must become a person with whom others want to do business. "People buy from people they like." (Murphy, 1987, p. 7). The HP technologist frequently has to persuade and influence others to accept new ideas or innovative approaches. Interpersonal skills are critical for the success of a project, allowing ideas to flourish among all affected subsystems and parties. Poor interpersonal skills can impede the best of ideas from being accepted.

Review of the literature

The literature does not offer much in the way of formally documenting required skills for HPT specialists. However, it does contain many references to competencies for instructional technologists, a closely associated specialist. Linking together the various allusions to required HPT skills dispersed throughout numerous articles and books with specific focused study of instructional technology practice offers a starting point to build a more specific set of HPT professional skill requirements for current practitioners. It is useful to remember that a majority of interventions designed by HP practitioners are still largely instructional in nature.
As a first step toward inducing a set of basic HPT skills, the authors of this chapter selected the 16 instructional/training development competencies established by the DID/NSPI Certification Task force (Bratton, 1984). These have gone through many iterations of testing and revision since their first publication and offer an excellent beginning for laying out a basic HPT skill set. They have been clustered on the basis of the five skill sub-groups presented above. They have then been refined and restated in light of the broader scope of current HPT practice. Table 1 presents the results of this process and acts as a starting point for naming at a relatively high level basic HPT skill requirements.

(Place table 1 here)

The DID/ISPI sixteen basic skills/competencies provided an organizational base which permitted expansion, to encompass the broader spectrum of HPT skill requirements. An examination of Table 1 shows that six of these fall into the Analysis and Observation skills sub-group, five in Design; two in Evaluation; three in Management skills; and six in Communication/Interpersonal. The contents of Table 1 also reflect and summarize rather well what the literature states are the desired skills, competencies and activities of HP professionals. In the absence of rigorous scientific studies aimed at determining the specific skills required to perform the work of a HPT specialist, there is a relatively large consensus among authors or investigators that have done some research work on the subject (e.g. Gilbert, 1996; Hutchison, 1990; Robinson and Robinson, 1998; Rummler and Brache, 1996; Silber, 1992).
Further to this point, in addition to the broad skill categories listed above, 118 specific skills and knowledge areas considered as important for HPT professionals were presented at the 1990 ISPI conference. The key ones were noted as being: "Analysis; integration and synthesis; salesmanship and marketing; negotiation and conflict management; communication; presentation and facilitation; change management; project management; planning (strategic, tactical and contingency); research; theory building and model building; implementation; evaluation and measurement" (Hutchison, 1990, p. 2). Many of these (except for theory and model building) appear in one form or another in Table 1.
In a study conducted by Spitzer (1988), he asked 59 respondents to rate 17 competencies they felt were "extremely important", "important" or "not important" to the work of an instructional or HP technologist. The key conclusions were that "analysis" competencies were judged extremely important by all respondents. These included "needs assessment, performance analysis and task analysis." Instructional design was also rated as very important. Oral and written communication and project management skills were also highly rated. Teamwork, understanding the dynamics of the organization and consulting skills were also rated highly. Once again, these track closely with the content of Table 1.
Ray and Sword (1993, p. 33), citing work done at Andersen Consulting, examine the HPT technologist as a re-engineering specialist. They group required skills and knowledge areas into eight major categories: strategic planning and visioning skills; reengineering process skills; information technology planning skills; industry and company operation knowledge; group processes and organizational change; project planning and program management; data collection, analysis and interpretation; solution design, prototyping and building. The Table 1 skills/competencies do not include information technology planning (a skills area in which Andersen Consulting specializes). With this exception, once again all areas appear to covered. “Reengineering process skills” is a term (Hammer & Champy, 1994) created which, although possessing a meaning of its own, may largely be subsumed under performance analysis and HPT intervention design.
Patterson (1985), after an extensive survey involving IT managers concerned with human performance problems, concluded that important capabilities included design, communication and organizational capabilities. He also stressed the "essential" need for analysis skills.
Rosenberg (1994, p. 25) listed the following as the essential skills required to transform one's thinking from a training paradigm to HPT: "It [requires] skills in analysis, project management, evaluation and systems integration, applied to solving human performance problems or realizing performance improvement opportunities."
Duncan and Powers (1992, p. 86) stress the need for HP practitioners to present themselves in "full dress" when they meet clients. "The more the consultant fits in with the group, the more quickly they [sic] will be accepted by the target audience... ‘Full dress’ includes one's knowledge, preparation, and application skills". Extending the Duncan and Powers analogy, one might view the sixteen skills listed above as the HP professional's “basic wardrobe", from which he or she may draw at the appropriate time.

Some initial conclusions on basic HPT skills

As a first general conclusion, there is considerable consistency among authors on what constitutes basic or essential skills for HPT professionals. For this chapter, the authors have selected the DID/NSPI Certification Task Force (Bratton, 1984) sixteen competencies as a foundation from which to build and as a means for organizing HPT basic professional skills. However, it is evident that many of these basic skills can apply to other business professionals beyond HPT. There is a need to further refine HPT basic skills. As Hutchison (1990, p. 5) states, "further clarification on competencies and standards for performance technologists" are called for. There is also a need for specifying the degree of expertise or mastery HPT professionals require in the various skills. The question of standards has not yet been adequately addressed by the HPT community. Although the specifying of standards is beyond the scope of this present chapter, aspects of it will emerge later when examining issues of standards and certification.

Which skills are most important?

Are all the skills referred to above of equal importance? Certainly, all are useful to the professional HPT practitioner. However, experienced professionals tend to focus on some of these as being of greater criticality than others. What follows are suggestions on important skills synthesized from the writings of established HPT professionals. These sage pieces of advice also include “pointers” for practitioners.
The most important general skill the HPT practitioner must possess is to keep a steady focus on the client need. The practitioner must engineer solution systems that get the job done (Gilbert, 1992). The HP technologist must not lose sight of the primary mission which is to determine the appropriate intervention or set of interventions and conditions that allow/induce people to perform optimally and eliminate the performance deficiency (Spitzer, 1992; Stolovitch & Keeps, 1998). It is easy, especially when the HPT professional lacks experience, to get carried away by the enthusiasms and constraints of the client organization. Separating needs from wants or whims and maintaining a steady eye on the valued outcomes is essential for professional success.
HP practitioners must be more "cause-conscious than solution-oriented" (Stolovitch and Keeps, 1992, p. 8). They must be able "to quickly and accurately identify and understand the issues affecting performance" (Rummler & Brache, 1992, p. 39). As Spitzer (1988) emphasizes, analytical skills are key for successful HPT practice.
HP technologists must maintain a “system view” of organizations. Whatever the specific problem or opportunity, the HP technologist must "adopt a holistic viewpoint toward performance problems, which means that they examine any given problem within the broader context of the [system] and subsystem[s] in which it is situated" (Stolovitch & Keeps, 1992, p. 5). One must always be careful when introducing change in one area, of the potential effects in other related areas. The HPT three-level framework (organization, process, and job/performer) proposed by Rummler & Brache (1996) is useful in helping the HPT practitioner adopt this system view.
"The HP technologist must know how and when to involve others" (Duncan & Powers, 1992, p. 90). The practice of HPT naturally includes many players. The HPT practitioner must be able to obtain support from authority figures, draw together opposing views and seek out skilled and knowledgeable individuals to make specific contributions to the success of a project. A key part of involving others is being able to recognize one’s own limitations and finding the right persons to be involved at the right moment. Skilled HPT professionals frequently work in teams, drawing strength from the diversity of capabilities they are able to bring to bear on a problem or opportunity.
Conduct "systematic analyses" as the "output of each analysis activity serves as the input for subsequent efforts and decisions" (Rossett, 1992a, p. 103). This means that HPT practitioners must be rigorous in applying established analytical methodologies. The more systematically and prudently information is gathered, the more probable the design and implementation of interventions will be successful.
Analysis is an important and serious business, but verifying one's own perceptions is equally, if not more important. Information that HPT practitioners collect can be incorrectly interpreted. As they find out "what's going on" or "what you think is going on", they must make sure to test those perceptions (Rossett, 1992a, p. 100). Particularly for external HPT consultants, perception of a situation becomes interpretation of reality. Double or triple-checking one's interpretation with others more familiar with the context is of foremost importance.
Sorting out priorities in terms of what is important for the overall success of an organization is an essential skill for HPT practitioners. There is no point in having a successful operation if the patient dies. "The most successful performance interventions are aligned with business results needs; focused in key result areas...focused on improving systems, not just on attacking symptoms" (Spitzer, 1992, p. 117). Interventions must have impact on the client's business to be considered successful.
An ounce of sound design is worth pounds of the most exotic and up-to-date media technology production. "Most research over the last two decades shows little difference in learning between programs with high production values and those that are much more simply but soundly designed" (Gayeski, 1992, p. 442). The able practitioner is not distracted by the latest technological fad. Technology choices are selected on the basis of cost-effectiveness and efficiency.
In summary, experienced HPT professionals focus on key skills that “make the difference”: ability to analyze, design, communicate, think systemically, work systematically, influence, work in teams and focus on critical performance and results.

Characteristics of the outstanding HPT professional

HPT is concerned with exemplary performance as a means of determining potential for improved performance (Gilbert, 1996, p. xvi). Exemplary performers possess a combination of skills and characteristics that permit them to attain outstanding accomplishments. To this point, we have focused our attention on HPT skills. We now turn to the desirable characteristics of the successful HPT practitioner. Sink (1992, pp. 566-567) suggests that six characteristics set the outstanding HPT professional apart.
1. Results-driven: "Outstanding HPT practitioners are results-oriented. They solve human performance problems."... They "do not become so intrigued with the processes and procedures of HPT that they lose sight of the true problem and the desired results."
2. Investigative: They know what to look for and how to find it. They possess the art of being able to ask “the critical few questions”.
3. Know how to set and maintain standards: From "the start of an intervention, the experienced HPT professional sets expectations for standards of quality ... (and) institutes quality checks at all key points in a project".
4. Cooperative/Collaborative: Successful HPT practitioners "display and encourage collaboration" with clients, subordinates, peers and other professionals.
5. Flexible while maintaining key principles: Talented HPT practitioners easily adapt to new contexts and shifting priorities. They deal with sudden constraints or increased scope. However, throughout, they apply their systematic processes and stay with what is best for the client and for the ultimate success of the project.
6. Willing and able to add value: "Successful HPT professionals go beyond doing a good job". The exemplary HPT performer constantly seeks to give the client more than improved performance. Frequently, this takes the form of educating clients on HPT principles, providing them with new resources or introducing them to technologies that have impact beyond the current project.

In brief, outstanding HPT performers have not only mastered the skills of the field, but also developed a professional set of characteristics that greatly enhance their effectiveness.

Other useful skills

Many other skills, abilities and characteristics have been found to be useful in HPT practice. These have been documented in various books, reports and articles. These are presented, sometimes paraphrased, to help round out and build on what has been included to date. The sources for each are listed to help the reader probe further.

Duncan & Powers (1992):
• Create consensus.
• Listen attentively and objectively.
• Orchestrate effective and efficient meetings.
• Give and receive feedback constructively.
• Present a non-threatening image.
• Nurture relationships between internal and external consultants.
• Demonstrate business knowledge and perspective (“economic and operations understanding of the organization's business", p. 85).
Spitzer (1992):
• Facilitate and lead teams.
• Negotiate effectively.
• Recognize when to purchase an already prepared intervention.
Jewell & Jewell (1992):
• Involve customer management in HPT interventions.
Bellman (1998):
• Give clients the data they need to recognize your accomplishments; lay the groundwork for a long-term partnership.
• Speak the truth; take risks; establish partnerships focused on the work that needs doing.
Steininger (1990):
• Share the glory and recognition with others.
• Give authority with responsibility.
• Take charge; make the tough calls; let everyone know why.
• Be either visible or invisible as required.
• Demonstrate; teach; tutor; mentor.
• Provide psychological support to team members and clients.
• Demonstrate an "all for one, one for all" attitude (p. 3).
Sink (1992):
• Provide clear explanations of what an HP technologist does and how it is done.
Hutchison, Kirkhorn, Shmikler, Newell & Wills (1988)
• Demonstrate the 11 traits most highly correlated with leadership: intelligence; getting along with others; technical competence; motivation of self and others; emotional stability; self-control; planning and organizational skills; a strong desire to achieve tasks; ability to make use of group processes; ability to be effective and efficient; and ability to be decisive.
Elliott (1998):
• Align the purpose of the project with the organization’s business goals.
Tosti & Jackson (1992):
• Demonstrate skills in leadership/teamwork/partnering.
Zigon (1987)
• Market ideas and HPT.
Gayeski (1993b)
• Eliminate what is unnecessary.
Westgaard (1992)
• Demonstrate ethical behavior: "Knowing the right things to do and doing it" (p. 733).
• Perform only to professional standards.
Gilbert (1996):
• Focus on accomplishments rather than on human behavior.
Rummler & Brache (1996):
• Integrate treatments into existing programs; package treatments into soundly conceived and effectively administered programs.
Geis & Smith (1992):
• Establish who the clients are.
• Integrate broad and disparate sets of data.
Pipe (1992):
• Demonstrate creativity through non-habitual thought and lateral thinking.
Carr (1992):
• Stop digging when one reaches the most fundamental practical cause of a performance deficiency.
Davidove (1991):
• Identify results valued by the client.
• Create client self-sufficiency.
• Create audit trails.
Robb (1998):
• Never lose sight of your goal; to improve the processes and human performance in support of the client’s business goals.

This extensive list has been drawn from the writings of experienced HPT professionals. Who are these individuals? What is their skills base? Does any single individual practitioner exhibit all of these capabilities?

Current practice/practitioners

Many current HPT practitioners come out of the field of instructional technology and training. Their base skill sets have been influenced by their own initial training and experience which largely centered on learning issues. Over time, they have adopted a much broader view of human performance and a more business-like approach to “worthy accomplishments" (Gilbert, 1996). It is not surprising that graduate students interested in HPT are being asked to possess more in-depth business knowledge and being taught consultative and management skills, as well as the capacity to evaluate the impact of a broad array of interventions (Rosenberg, cited by Rossett, 1990).
Current practitioners, therefore, also need to develop their business and management skills in order to grow -- all the more so, as an increasing number of individuals come to the field with a variety of backgrounds, including MBA's (Robinson and Robinson, 1995, p. 12). However, what are the limits? Can anyone possess all the skills HPT seems to be encompassing? Can anyone be proficient in every skill and characteristic listed so far? Is it necessary for one individual to master them all?
The obvious answer to all these questions is “no”. However, there is a place for expertise clusters to form within the HPT community. To return to our analogy of the medical profession, we can see that HPT has the scope to accommodate a variety of specialties as well as generalists. As Rosenberg, Coscarelli & Hutchison (1992, p. 24) point out, "it quickly becomes apparent that the expertise needed to design, implement, and evaluate them all is impossible to obtain from one individual".
This is a positive development for HPT. It should encourage individuals to acquire some specialization as part of their personal skills inventory. It should also lead to cooperation and sharing within the HPT community. Some universities are sending the message out to their HPT students. Medsker and Fry (1992, p. 54) describe their program at Marymount University as follows: "Recognizing that no performance technologist can be an expert in every intervention, ...[we] acquaint students with the variety available and... build proficiency in some". It also underscores the importance of what binds all HP technologists together: being able to conduct “the critical diagnosis and bring in a team of specialists to design and implement a broad set of treatments" (Rummler & Brache, 1992, p. 44). This ability to act as the chief diagnostician, in itself, is one of the defining skills of all HPT professionals. Mager (1992b, p. 743) eloquently sums up how one should view the ever-growing array of skills that are emerging as relevant to HPT: "Though it can easily be verified that the world of music is huge, one need learn only a minuscule fraction of what is knowable to become a very competent musician...Therefore, the recognition of the fact that there is much one could know about HPT should not deter one from a decision to become worthy in the field."




The future of HPT and skills requirements

The role of the HPT practitioner is evolving at a rapid pace. This trend will continue and even accelerate as clients continue to ask HP technologists to intervene in more and more varied situations. As the role of the HPT practitioner expands, the direction it appears to be taking is mostly that of consultant (Sink,1992; Robinson and Robinson, 1995). What new skills will the HPT consultant of the future require?
In order to discern specific future skills requirements, we briefly look ahead to identify major trends evolving in the work place and the challenges associated with them. Brandenburg & Binder (1992) presented four major trends: first, the increase in international competition with the accompanying emphasis on productivity and quality; second, the growing diversity of the work force with its impact on entry skills, personal values and learning needs; third, the accelerating turnover of knowledge, especially in the scientific and engineering worlds; fourth, the rapid advances in information technology. All of these trends demand greater and more cost-effective investment in human resource development (p. 652). Sink (1992, p. 573), in a similar vein, notes: "Future trends in HPT closely parallel trends in business and society. Increased automation in the practice of HPT is already being emphasized in most organizations". Viewed from the perspective of 1999 - The step up to the next millenium - one sees an even greater need for both knowledge and wisdom in using technology to achieve desirable human performance results.
As a direct consequence, "in work environments that change ever more rapidly, one important need may be to learn while working" note Brandenburg & Binder (1992, p. 658). "Workers will use on-the-job information systems to access policies, procedures, and data as needed -- a sort of "just in time" training. The technologies to do the above are currently available... (and) the challenge will be to integrate tools into existing organizational structures and reward systems".
What is and will be the impact for HP consultants? The same authors cite that they will need to be keenly aware and knowledgeable of the characteristics of these future systems: more interactivity between users via the web, organizational intranets and electronic conferencing of every variety; systems that will use multiple technologies; multiplicity of communication protocols and the increasing use of digital technologies.
They see the HP technologist occupying a crucial role as instigator, coordinator, and manager of change for improved individual and organizational performance (p. 669). They cite the following as key skills for the twenty-first century:
• Recognize and exploit the potential of HPT as an integrator of technologies and methods from other fields.
• Master front-end analysis methods that incorporate a systems view of organizations.
• Obtain management support to do front-end analysis.
• Deal with an expanded range of interventions and methods.
• Forge alliances and working relationships with specialists in other fields and with other approaches to human performance.
• Anticipate and assess the mutual impacts of multiple technologies.
• Design and implement measurement and continuous improvement systems even more than is the current practice to achieve optimized integrated solutions.

Brethower (1993, p. 18) feels that the future will require HP technologists "who have the special knowledge and skills needed to conduct performance-based, learn-as-you-earn, workplace development projects". Brethower also cites small organizations as the probable preferred workplace for most HPT practitioners as these continue to employ most of the work force.

Gayeski (1991a, p. 47) notes the same trend as "more of us will be working for small companies in the next decade". She also foresees that the "performance technologist must learn to develop electronic job aids, expert systems, and interactive multi-media training and performance support systems" and emphasizes that "more than ever, we will be change agents, helping our clients adapt to the challenging times that face us". Mastering the following technologies are what she sees as of major importance to the profession: desktop media development systems; expert and mentoring systems; and electronic performance support tools.

Laiken (1993, pp. 35-36) suggests that other areas where HP technologists will likely spend more time will be in helping to develop organizational vision, philosophy, mission statements and strategic goals; assessing organizations’ overall learning needs and the development of educational interventions [at macro levels]; team development; working at all levels of the organization utilizing a performance management cycle (e.g. negotiating performance expectations, setting behavioral objectives, discussing and updating performance development plans); coaching of management personnel.

Many HPT professionals have already begun to perform what appear to be future tasks. However, the frequency and intensity of these will likely increase over time. So, too, will the pressure to produce more complex, integrated intervention systems to improve performance and business results (Stolovitch and Keeps, 1998). Time will also be a constantly decreasing commodity as cycle times continue to reduce. A conclusion we can draw from various futuristic views is that the execution of multiple new tasks will require additional and complementary skills: more on technology, on organizational behavior and certainly more about business in international, competitive markets. This will force HPT practitioners to work smarter, not harder; to achieve results in less time.
In view of the many major challenges that will confront the field, one added and absolutely essential skill needed today, but even more in the future to survive will be delegation. Gayeski (1991b, p. 40) highlights this by stating: "We'll need to learn to share our skills with subject-matter experts and part-time instructional developers so that some of the work can be shared by them".


Developing and defining HPT practitioner skills

As the field evolves and as the number of individuals calling themselves HP technologists increases, a logical question to pose is "How are skills developed in the field and who has the authority to define the required skill sets?".
Currently, the primary means for developing HPT skills is through practice and experience. At this point in time, there are few HPT practitioners with more than 25 years of direct experience in the field. Most acquired their initial, entry-level skills in other related fields such as IT, behavioral psychology and management. They then went on to accept new challenges and expand their competency repertoires. We must remember that this is a new domain, one that parallels the fast-paced evolution of technology’s impact on the industrial world over the last 35 years. We sometimes forget that "programmed instruction", one of the major roots of HPT, did not appear until the 1960's (Deutsch, 1992) and that HPT as a distinct field only made its appearance in the late 1970's (Dean and Ripley, 1997).
The individuals who defined the original scope and purpose of HPT, pioneered its first interventions and have been responsible for creating HPT as an applied field of science certainly have something to say about required skills. As a first source of direction regarding HPT practitioner skills, one should review publications of HPT pioneers such as Thomas F. Gilbert, Robert F. Mager, Joe Harless, Roger Kaufman, Geary Rummler, Donald Tosti and others. Their writings on the theoretical underpinnings as well as the practical applications have become, over time, the foundation of the current HPT framework and a primary source of inspiration for needed skills.
Another varied source of skills identification and development comes from clients. They are the ones experiencing performance deficiencies and calling for help. They often intuitively know what kind of individuals they want to deal with and what sort of help they need. Without pinpointing specific skills, they are looking for someone, who, first of all, will listen and then, will be able to analyze the situation and recommend a viable cost-effective solution (Robinson and Robinson, 1995). Clients also buy from people they like. As they constantly conduct business transactions, they are sensitive to the people skills exhibited by the individual HP practitioner (Bellman, 1998). "The powerful analytical abilities typically possessed by performance technologists need to be supplemented by the necessary human skills to gain acceptance of ideas not yet largely understood" (Murphy, 1987, p. 6) -- as true today as twelve years ago. The field has all to gain by being alert and attentive to customers' comments as these communicate, in many ways, to HP professionals the behaviors they want us to exhibit. The major skills they look for are those that offer results. HP technologists should, therefore, constantly be honing these.
The evolution of ideas in the management sciences are a third major source for identifying needed skills. Concepts and processes related to change agentry, socio-technical systems, culture change, total quality and process reengineering, for example, have enormous impact on organizational -- and consequently, human -- performance. As clients request HP technologists to become involved in projects related to these concepts or as work on performance problems and opportunities intersect with initiatives related to these, the skills required to deal with them naturally emerge. HP consultants are constantly being stretched by the introduction of new ideas from other fields.
The community of HPT practitioners itself is a fourth and major source of skills development and identification. Books written by HPT professionals and scholars are becoming more frequent. These generally present clearly defined models, detailed examples of performance problems and solutions, analytical procedures and documented human performance cases. Professional workshops on specific skills and issues abound. ISPI publications and conferences, for example, provide excellent forums for the exchange of innovative thinking and skill requirements among HPT experts and practitioners. The sharing of ideas and experiences about newly discovered skills or techniques practitioners have found particularly helpful in their day-to-day practice creates a rich professional network that is a stimulating resource for learning and skills acquisition.
What is evident from this brief section is that there are many sources of skill development and identification for HPT practitioners. It is clear that these are not organized in any systematic way. Individuals enter the field through many doors, practice, gain experience, read, attend workshops and conferences, perhaps are mentored and eventually view themselves as HPT professionals. No formal mechanisms exist for officially defining skill sets and means for developing HPT competencies. There is no certification or sanctioning of practitioners. Should there be? Is there a need to create professional standards within the HPT community?

Should there be a set of professional standards for HPT practitioners?

The medical profession has clearly defined sets of standards for general practitioners and specialists. These declare who may practice and to what extent. The standards allow all practitioners to communicate easily and rapidly among themselves. They share a fixed, common terminology, common tools and sets of standardized approaches. One practitioner can easily transmit and receive information from another. Many other domains such as painting or sculpture remain relatively untouched by general standards, even though all artists know how to prepare their colors and present their work. There are no set, clearly defined standards in their art. Much is left to imagination and creativity. Yet despite this, artists still communicate with their clients and among themselves even though their communication may not be as rapid and precise as those of physicians.
What of the field of HPT? Is there a need for a common set of recognized standards and official certification as a “professional HP technologist? Is it better to allow each individual practitioner the liberty to practice as he or she feels is most effective? Arguments on both sides have been quite convincingly made. This chapter does not take sides on the issue. It is the authors’ view that those who seriously call themselves professional HP technologists will ultimately make the decision. What this chapter presents below is a review of the arguments for and against standards and a certification process for all practitioners.
Arguments in favor of standards: A key problem caused by the current lack of standards in the field is the lack of credibility given to HP specialists by higher management and other colleagues. "Our interventions should be creative and expansive, but currently our profession lacks the appropriate theoretical base, identity, and reporting structure within our organizations. (Gayeski, 1993a, p. 36).” This concern has been expressed by a number of other practitioners who feel that the certification process embodies professionalism, competence, prestige and self-improvement. They argued that certified or sanctioned standards are an opportunity to:
• Show that an individual’s knowledge and skills surpass the minimum required for practice.
• Validate an individual's qualifications, knowledge and practice, based upon predetermined standards.
• Officially recognize the achievements a professional has made in his or her area of practice.
• Provide a benefit to the professional, the profession and to the public being served.

Arguments against standards: Others have argued that official standards and certification can stifle creativity within a field. Boothe (1984) summarized his arguments with an emotional plea (p. 20): "Let's retain the freedom to explore, discover, compete, grow, and even fail now and then".
Reasons against official standards and certification are as follows:
• No one has yet defined the problem (the true need for certification).
• The few professions that have experienced this kind of regulation are those that serve the masses with a definable service.
• It is a case of the profession (HPT) telling the user group what they ought to want.
• The best that certification can guarantee is mediocrity.
• It is only in the interest of the universities and could dampen growth and the search for excellence by those not university sanctioned.
• The focus of our energies will be on certification rather than on competence.
• The mission statement of ISPI (which HP technologists view as their professional society) implies a quest, while a certification system implies arrival at a destination.
Over the past fifteen years there have been numerous arguments for and against HPT certification. However, no official set of professional standards exist as yet, although both the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) and ISPI are discussing operational procedures to accomplish this by the year 2000. The field currently operates as a free market enterprise with both its advantages and difficulties. The advantage are creativity and the natural law of supply and demand. It is the customer as the service receiver who defines competence and value. On the negative side, the field continues to suffer from a lack of credibility with higher management, a condition particularly felt by internal HP consultants.
Without recognized professional work standards and a certification process, the field lies vulnerable to charlatans. It also remains vague and difficult to explain to those who are not part of its practicing community. It possesses no specific mechanism for defining required skills and knowledge. It also offers no clear, standard means for preparing individuals eager to enter the field.

The preparation and training of the HPT practitioner

For individuals discovering HPT and deciding to become HPT professionals, what preparation and training is appropriate? What knowledge and abilities should they possess before entering the job market? Where do they acquire these? This section presents suggestions on the type of curriculum offerings university faculties can provide to prepare students for the workplace. It also suggests other potential training alternatives.
Members of the academic community who have made HPT a focus of study, representatives of business organizations and the HPT professionals have been communicating about ways to better prepare and train future HPT practitioners. The consensus among these various groups is that there is a strong need to provide students with practical skills. University faculty members active in HPT are open to this and have begun to take concrete steps. The question, however, is where to begin.
Patterson (1985) conducted a study on the preparation of instructional technologists in universities. What he found holds some relevance for the field of HPT as it is largely in instructional technology departments that HPT is taught. The study focused on skills that government agencies and business organizations require of instructional technologists. The survey included a 50 item questionnaire plus a number of interviews. It was sent to American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) members occupying a major role in instructional product and/or program development. Forty participants representing four major workplace categories were selected. Ten were in manufacturing, ten in service industries, ten in medicine and ten in government and social agencies. Major questions focused on competency and business knowledge requirements of instructional technologists as well as the levels of competency (depth) required.
The study concluded with a number of useful suggestions for university preparation of instructional technologists. It recommended that "Academic programs preparing individuals as program and product development specialists should provide each learner:

1. A strong foundation of studies in the behavioral sciences (theories of learning and instruction, models of communication, a variety of instructional development models and the theory and practice of front-end analysis and evaluation of results).
2. Multiple experiences and study in the design and production of training programs requiring design, analysis, instructional media production (or selection), formative evaluation, product/program revision and final program evaluation.
3. The opportunity for acquiring effective communication skills including writing, organizing messages during the phases of program/product development, and executing presentations using a wide variety of appropriate audiovisual media.
4. Assurances that emerging instructional media technologies will not be preselected or overemphasized as the final solution to an instructional problem.
5. Opportunity for study and experience in the area in which the individual wishes to pursue a career.
6. Knowledge and skills in the management of the formal and informal organizational processes in program/product development (e.g. project management skills, strategic planning, budgeting and resource allocation, personnel selection and supervision, cost-benefit analysis of project results).
7. Practical experience in [human] performance technology in which the learners' behaviors and performance as a pre-professional developer are clearly evaluated in the context of the problem to be solved and the goals of the organization. It is essential that specialists entering training and HRD possess the analytical skills to identify the problems that are appropriate for their respective capabilities and to be able to judge the cost-benefit of solving the designated problems (Patterson, 1985, p. 38).”

Although focused on instructional technologists, the Patterson study provides an excellent starting point for considering the formal preparation of HP technologists. Many of the skills and competencies identified as desirable by the respondents are applicable to HPT. The strong emphasis on “practical experiences” and analytical skills resonates well for the HPT field.
Since the study, several universities have implemented some of the recommendations. A few have gone beyond to incorporate an HPT perspective. San Diego State University and the Université de Montréal are two examples of this. Both have courses specifically dealing with HPT skills and issues. Medsker & Fry (1992) describe a Master’s degree at Marymount University that has been launched within the HRD program and has a strong HPT orientation. The curriculum is skills centered and courses are competency-based: "Students demonstrate mastery primarily through hands-on projects that require application of course principles to work-related situations"(p. 53). The overall program has been logically designed, with a prescribed sequence of courses which students are encouraged to follow. The program attempts to develop specific practical expertise. It recognizes "that no performance technologist can be an expert in every intervention", therefore the program "attempts to acquaint students with the variety available and to build proficiency in some".
University involvement in the preparation of HP technologists is essential in building credibility for the field. If the programs they provide also produce graduates who can demonstrate practical skills in analysis, design of a small range of interventions and evaluation as well as basic knowledge of business practices and organizational dynamics, then credibility for the field is even more enhanced.
Rossett (1990) of San Diego State University proposes another interesting approach to the preparation of HP technologists. She, too, sees the university as an important source for producing competent HPT practitioners. However, instead of focusing on program outputs (i.e. graduates), she suggests that attention be placed on inputs (i.e. students entering the program). Basically, her idea calls for establishing specific entry requirements to a HPT graduate program. Selected students should already possess some of the skills or knowledge considered necessary for the field. For example, individuals with majors in organizational behavior, information systems or industrial psychology or others likely to possess these skills such as second-career individuals or re-entry women would be likely candidates. An alternative for attaining the same objective would be to specify required prerequisite skills and establish acceptable routes to acquire them. This could include the identification of courses in business, economics, psychology and other relevant areas.
A very appropriate means for preparing HPT practitioners is by introducing HPT to current IT students. Rossett (1990, p. 49) suggests that courses in instructional technology be given an HPT flavor and provides suggestions on how to "infuse [H]PT perspectives into their classes". She particularly stresses the importance of providing at least one course that deals with analysis and strategic thinking beyond the traditional instructional boundaries.
Two programs currently in action to develop HP professionals within the university environment have demonstrated both attractiveness in terms of enrollment, and success with its student accomplishments. Boise State University currently offers a distance based Master’s program in human performance technology. Along with high enrollment levels, the program has seen its graduates successfully find HPT work in large organizations. The University of Southern California has also launched a well attended doctoral program with the appealing title of “human performance at work”. Both of these programs focus on producing high level specialists in HPT.
While universities are gradually moving to implement programs of relevance for the preparation of HPT practitioners, day-to-day experience and the performance of on-the-job activities still remain the most effective way to learn and develop HPT skills.
"People learn by doing; they try to act in order to understand (Carroll, 1992, p. 335)." As Carroll further points out, “integration can occur only through meaningful action.” To ensure that beginning practitioners are able to exhibit basic HP skills when they leave university programs and prior to presenting themselves to prospective employers requires guided practice and feedback on these skills. This suggests that some form of mentoring from members of the HP community would be invaluable. HPT as a field can only benefit by producing better practitioners through university and practitioner cooperation. More skilled practitioners will only enhance the credibility of the field. There may even be benefit in requiring that Master's Degree students wishing to become HPT practitioners be required to work under the supervision of an experienced HPT mentor for a number of months and demonstrate capability in the basic skills. The result: universities would produce higher caliber students and build their reputations in the business world (a source of students and contracts); experienced practitioners would benefit from low or no cost assistance for a number of months (as in law, accounting and medicine) with the opportunity to judge for themselves the value of potential future hirees; students would obtain opportunities to practice and develop competencies, gain experience (and more substance for their resumes) explore the field hands-on and approach the job market with greater confidence. As Gilley & Eggland (1989) mention, "mentoring programs are more career-oriented in focus" than simple OJT, for example, and use of mentors would fit well with the development of HPT professionals.
In summary, many avenues exist for preparing future HP technologists. The number of practitioners, university programs with HPT content and local chapters of ISPI are all growing. This trend in itself suggests that more opportunities to learn, practice and gain experiences are becoming available. This augurs well for future HPT practitioners.

How should we keep ourselves current?

All groups which view themselves as professional provide means for practitioners to keep current with changes and developments in their fields. Generally, this is done by offering members a variety of developmental opportunities such as books and journals, local professional events, regional or national conferences, workshops, meetings and committee work. All of these have one major purpose: to sustain competency and keep professional practitioners current on important issues.
The HPT field is relatively well organized in this respect. ISPI offers HP practitioners two journals, sponsored books and occasional publications, international and local conferences and HPT Institutes. The rapid growth the field has been experiencing over the last fifteen years has been paralleled by a marked increase in publications and events directly aimed at HPT practitioners.
Coleman (1992) cites five major means for HPT practitioners to keep abreast of the field’s continuous expansion: joining (professional societies such as ISPI); reading; attending; networking; and sharing. He suggests that each practitioner create a professional development program which includes plans for each of the five activity areas. "These plans should match both current expertise and new interests with the available time, resources, and desired level of effort.
Of all the ways HPT practitioners can keep themselves current, participation in professional organizations is one of the best. Besides learning from the activities of the organization, it also provides opportunities for networking. Duncan & Powers (1992, p. 88) make a strong case for developing oneself in this manner. They state that "networking can supplement or take the place of a mentor. A strong network gives the HP consultant referent and expertise power and validates the kind of work that he or she is doing". This point of view, upheld by many in the field, suggests that participation in professional events should begin very early in the HPT practitioner’s career. Students desiring to enter the field should be encouraged to join local professional groups such as ISPI chapters and become involved in their activities.

Values for HPT Professionals:

HPT is spreading geographically at an astounding pace. For example, the number of local ISPI chapters throughout the globe has multiplied fivefold in the past ten years. Organizations such as the International Federation of Training and Development Organizations (IFTDO) have made HPT a central focus of interest as has ASTD with its increased emphasis on “performance improvement”. However, activity, success and growth without a firm set of values can endanger a field during its fragile state of expansion.
While HPT struggles to define basic and advanced skill sets and has addressed directly and indirectly the desirable characteristics of HPT professionals, it has remained silent with respect to values. In closing this chapter, the authors, based on their close association with the HPT community, their own practice and their study of the professional literature, propose a first cut set of HPT practitioner values. These are offered as a starter set and are certainly incomplete. Nevertheless, they have guided the authors’ HPT professional activities over the past twenty years and have helped weather many professionally challenging adventures. The twelve value statements are presented in the first person to emphasize their credo-like quality.

1. Our clients are, or become, professional partners and friends. They are as delighted to work with us as we are to work with them. HPT is a field of practice that focuses on “human” performance. To achieve success requires a harmonious, collaborative relationship between HPT specialists and client. Achieving desirable behavior and accomplishment changes results from open communication and complicity of action and spirit. This enhances the probability of long-term relationships and success.
2. We are fully committed to our clients’ best interests. We address their needs with the most cost-effective solutions. This value emphasizes the service nature of HPT professionals. It commits them to meeting needs rather than wants. It places precedence of performance consulting over order taking and implies prudent thought over enthusiasm for a currently popular intervention.
3. We provide greater value to our clients than the cost of our services. HPT is concerned with cost-effectiveness. The accomplishments resulting from HPT interventions must far outweigh the costs of their attainment. Commitment to this value should result in data-based decision-making, tracking of results and demonstrated worth to the client.
4. We perform our services in partnership with our clients and in a non-threatening manner. Collaboration is key to a HPT practitioner’s success. Although HPT possesses its own jargon, tools and viewpoints, these must be melded with those of the client system through mutuality. To accomplish this requires partnership and an environment of relaxed sharing. The purpose of the HPT practitioner’s involvement in a project is to contribute his or her specialized capability, but in ways that the client system can easily assimilate and leverage with internal capabilities.
5. We apply only the highest standards of ethical and professional conduct in our work. In Chapter ___ of this Handbook, Dean deals with ethical issues. Key to credibility and trust is the client’s confidence that HPT professionals conduct themselves ethically and to a high performance standard. Although HPT has not defined a code of ethics and a set of standards, models of appropriate conduct exist in similar fields that serve as guidelines for HPT practitioners (e.g. OD consultants; certified professional accountants). Although it may sound old-fashioned at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the concept of “honorable conduct” still appears appropriate for HPT practice.
6. Our professional practice is based upon the scientific principles of HPT and its respected precedents. What distinguishes HPT from many other organizational consulting fields is its firm adherence to what science has discovered about human behavior and performance. HPT is committed to the application of scientific and documented knowledge to produce valued accomplishment. Frequently, clients come to the HPT professional not only with a problem but with the belief that a particular type of solution will effect a miracle cure. HPT professionals must approach such enthusiasms with openness to listen but skepticism about potentially miraculous results. It is the HPT practitioner’s duty to separate enthusiasm from data-based fact and guide the client toward the highest probability-of-success set of interventions even if these are distant from those initially envisioned. HPT professionals are committed to supporting and contributing to the expansion of the scientific knowledge base of human performance.
7. We develop and support people in their personal and professional growth. The field of HPT is about human behavior and accomplishment. The HPT professional, personally and through interactions with others, constantly seeks to improve knowledge and performance capability. By example, HPT specialists demonstrate what the field stands for.
8. Our aim is to build maximum client self-sufficiency, not consultant dependency. Despite the temptation of becoming a permanent fixture in a client organization, HPT practitioners must seek to transfer performance capability to those they serve. The ability to accomplish this is the major contribution HPT makes to clients.
9. We encourage and support our clients in their own professional growth. The most desirable form of conduct in HPT practice is that of partnership and client support. As a value-add, the HPT professional contributes to growing client capability. This results in both successful projects and enhanced client/personal accomplishment potential.
10. We accept responsibility. We allow ourselves to accept congratulations for our successes, because we are prepared to live with the consequences of our failures. While HPT is dedicated to application of scientific principles to achieve human performance accomplishments, not every effort results in success. Accepting failure professionally along with its consequences, painful as this may be, is necessary for the HPT professional. Ability to accept responsibility for lack of accomplishment is a precondition for the HPT professional’s right to receive the benefits of successful practice.
11. We welcome challenges that allow us to stretch and expand our competencies. HPT is a rapidly developing field. Practitioners must continuously expand their knowledge and skill repertoires if they are to meet the new conditions of the constantly evolving work environment. Rather than back away from new challenges, the HPT practitioner should seek these out as a means of growing and developing professionally.
12. We treat commitments, promises and professional relationships as sacred trusts. HPT practitioners apply their skills to change human behaviors and accomplishments. The work is generally performed within tight time and budgeting constraints. Frequently client expectations of HPT practitioner performance are high. This is a challenge that requires dedication and focus. Adherence to commitments, written or oral, formal or casual, is a must for professional credibility.

In summary, skills without values decrease the professional nature of the role the HPT practitioner can play in organizations. The starter set of values proposed above represent one point of view about appropriate HPT professional values. Ultimately, the HPT community, as a whole, must create its value set. This will require severe testing though the fires of many cultures and contexts before being forged into a universally accepted HPT value system.

Conclusion

HPT addresses some key societal and organizational concerns. Governments, social agencies, non-profit organizations as well as profit motivated businesses all require optimal utilization of their resources. Of all their resources, humans are generally the most costly and also the most valuable (Stewart, 1997; Edvinsson and Malone, 1997). Gains or losses of human productivity have direct and significant impact on the bottom line. HPT offers systemic and systematic means to analyze and intervene in work related human performance situations. Its complete focus on improving human performance with a strong track record of success makes it a unique, viable and valuable field of practice.
To work as a HP technologist requires mastery of HPT’s basic processes and skills. This means that HP practitioners must demonstrate strong technical competencies that include analytical, design and evaluation skills. They must also exhibit people and communication competencies which include managerial, organizational and interpersonal skills. Practitioners who are recognized as experts in the field distinguish themselves by their mastery of both types of skills, their constant focus on end-results and their continued striving to learn and improve their capabilities. They also achieve recognition through their adherence to strict, high standards of work and conduct.
Today's HP technologists include a variety of former educators, behavioral psychologists, training specialists and managers, instructional technologists and management professionals who gravitated toward the world of HPT and gained skills through practice and experience. As the field evolves, specific university programs are emerging that teach HPT concepts and processes and provide opportunities to develop practical skills. As the field solidifies, HPT practitioners are gaining more business skills and starting to work at higher levels of organizations. They are also reaching out to deal with areas generally associated with other professionals such as OD and HR specialists. Over time, the limits of the field will have to be more clearly demarcated. But for now, HPT’s focus on improving human performance and skills to diagnose performance gaps as well as design effective interventions makes it increasingly more attractive to organizations.
The future appears promising for HP technologists. Organizational demands to improve performance demonstrates that there is a need for professionals with appropriate skills, characteristics and values to make it happen. As Carr (1994, p. 6) has pointed out, "In short, we help organizations take a variety of steps that make better performance easier for their performers". The opportunities are there. To seize them requires that HPT practitioners acquire a wide range of skills that help organizations achieve their goals. The greater our skills, the greater our acceptance by business and educational communities. We must accumulate and document success stories for HPT to demonstrate that we add value. We must analyze our successes to identify the skills and personal characteristics that made them happen. We must report on the required skill sets, characteristics and values so that universities, mentors and internship programs can integrate these and in turn ensure that students acquire them. As the role of HP practitioners expands toward becoming an overall organizational performance consultant operating in a global context, current HP technologists should also verify their own skill sets, personal characteristics and professional values to meet the new and exciting challenges.

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