HR PLANNING (HRP) AND RECRUITMENT

 

Organizational objec­tives can be achieved only through the efforts of people. Jobs within the organization must be staffed with personnel who are qualified to perform them. Meeting these staffing needs requires effective planning for human resources.
Once the HR planning function is fulfilled, then the staffing of the organization must be completed through the recruitment process. Employment recruiting has acquired a new importance for managers since both manufacturing and service organizations are finding it increasingly difficult to find qualified applicants to fill job openings.
According to a Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) special report on the U.S. labor shortage, most employers have entered a period in which jobs ranging from the unskilled to the professional and technical are harder to staff; and this condition is not likely to abate in the near future. No longer can managers rely solely upon unsolicited applications to fill openings.
Changing employment conditions mandate that managers consider a variety of recruitment alternatives to attract the right employees to the organization. The process of planning for HR needs, sources of applicants, and methods of attracting applicants will require new innovative recruitment ideas.

Human Resources Planning

Human resources planning (HRP) is the process of anticipating and making provision for the movement of people into, within, and out of an organization. Its purpose is to deploy these resources as effectively as possible, where and when they are needed, in order to accomplish the organization's goals.

Human resources planning (HRP)
The process of anticipating and making
provision for the movement of people
into, within, and out of
an organization

        Other more spe­cific purposes of HRP include anticipating labor shortages and surpluses; provid­ing more employment opportunities for women, minorities, and the disabled; and mapping out employee training programs. In fact, HRP provides a launching point for most all of the activities that are subsumed under HRM.

 

Importance of Human Resources Planning

Consider these facts:

·   The U.S. labor force will grow by only about 1 percent each year between 1986 and 2005.
·   Between 80 and 90 percent of the new labor force entrants will be minorities and women.
·   Immigrants will account for more than 23 percent of the change in the labor-force composition over the period from 1986 to 2000.
·   The average age of the workforce will be 39 by the year 2000.
·   The five occupations expected to experience faster-than-average growth are technicians, service workers, professionals, sales representatives, and executive and managerial employees.  These occupations require the highest education and skill levels.
·   Nearly one-third of the workforce is composed of part-timers, temporary workers, and the self-employed.
·   2.5 million functionally illiterate Americans enter the workforce yearly.             

These dramatic shifts in the composition of the U.S. labor force require that managers become more involved in HRP. The employment market in non-U.S. developed countries is equally as challenging except that the demographics are a little different. Each of these changes affects employee recruitment while requiring additional HRP in the areas of employee selection, training, compensation, and motivation.
Although planning has always been an essential process of management, increased emphasis on HRP provides the foun­dation for establishing an effective HRM program and for coordinating the HRM functions being performed within it. HRP becomes especially critical when organiza­tions consider mergers, the relocation of plants, downsizing, or the closing of op­erating facilities.
An organization may incur several intangible costs as a result of inadequate HRP or the lack of HRP. For example, inadequate HRP can cause vacancies to remain unfilled. The resulting loss in efficiency can be costly, particularly when lead time is required to train replacements.
Situations also may occur in which employees are laid off in one department while applicants are hired for similar jobs in another department. This may cause overhiring and result in the need to lay off those employees who were recently hired. Finally, lack of HRP makes it difficult for employees to make effective plans for career or personal develop­ment. As a result, some of the more competent and ambitious ones may seek other employment where they feel they will have better career opportunities.

 

HRP and Strategic Planning

As organizations plan for their future, HR managers must be concerned with meshing HRP with strategic business planning. At the broadest level, strategic planning addresses the question "What business are we in?" HRP, on the other hand, addresses the question "What skills are needed for success in this busi­ness?"
Through strategic planning, organizations set major objectives and de­velop comprehensive plans to achieve those objectives. This involves making primary resource allocation decisions, including those pertaining to structure, key processes, and the interrelationships among human resources. An increas­ingly vital element of strategic planning is determining if people are available, internally or externally, to carry out the organization's goals.
HRP and strategic planning become effective when there is a reciprocal and interdependent relationship between them. In this relationship, the top manage­ment team recognizes that strategic-planning decisions affect--and are affected by--HR functions. The HR department and its activities are then viewed as credible and important along with other management functions such as produc­tion, marketing, service, and finance.
HR managers must not only recognize the potential contribution they can make to organizational growth and development, they must be proactive in developing HR programs and policies that foster the organization's strategic mission. This positive linkage occurs when the HR manager becomes a member of the organization's management steering commit­tee or strategic-planning group. Once this interactive and dynamic structure exists, HR managers are recognized as contributing strategic planners alongside other top managers.
IBM has been a forerunner in the integration of HRP and strategic planning. Within IBM's manufacturing and product development businesses the cor­poration's HR department develops a five-year HR strategic plan and a two-year tactical plan based on tentative business goals. These goals are formulated only after IBM conducts an internal and external analysis of the company's strengths and weaknesses. Major business decisions are not approved until the vice presi­dent of HR concurs with the business plan.

 

HRP and Environmental Scanning

Environmental scanning is the systematic, regular monitoring of the major ex­ternal forces influencing the organization. In theory, HRP re­quires an integration of the environment with all of the HRM functions. As the IBM example illustrates, the HRP process will be integrated with the strategic-planning process through environmental scanning. This procedure is necessary because any strategies developed must be consistent with those environmental trends and contemporary issues that may have an impact on the organization. HRP, in turn, must anticipate the possible impact of these strategies upon HRM.
Organizations can select any number of environmental factors to scan; how­ever, the following five are monitored most frequently:

• Economic factors, including general and regional conditions and competition trends
• Technological changes, including robotics and office automation
• Political/legislative issues, including laws and administrative rulings
• Social concerns, including child care and educational priorities
• Demographic trends, including age, composition, and literacy of the workforce

 

The labor-force trends illustrate the importance of monitoring demographic changes in the population as a part of HRP. Such changes can affect the composition and performance of an organization's workforce. These changes are important because EEO/AA plans must take into ac­count the demographic composition of the population in the area where the organization is located. Furthermore, with a "maturing" American workforce, HRP must consider the many implications of this demographic fact on recruit­ment and replacement policies.

Elements of Effective HRP

Managers follow a systematic process, or model, when undertaking HRP. The three key elements of the process are forecasting the demand for labor, performing a supply analysis, and balancing supply and de­mand considerations. Careful attention to each factor will help top managers and supervisors to meet their staffing requirements.

 

HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING MODEL
EMPLOYMENT FORECASTING	LEADS TO	SUPPLY ANALYSIS	RESULTING IN	BALANCING SUPPLY AND DEMAND CONSIDERATIONS

 

CONSIDERATIONS Product/service demand Economics Technology Financial resources Absenteeism/turnover Organizational growth Management philosophy TECHNIQUES Trend analysis Managerial estimate Delphi technique

INTERNAL Staffing tables Markov analysis Skills inventories Management inventories Replacement charts Succession planning   EXTERNAL Demographic changes Education of workforce Labor mobility Governmental policies Unemployment rate

RECRUITMENT (SHORTAGE) Full-time Part-time Recalls REDUCTIONS (SURPLUS) Terminations Layoffs Demotions Retirement

 

 

Forecasting Demand for Employees

A key component off HRP is forecasting the number and type of people needed to meet organizational objectives. A variety of organizational factors, including competitive strategy, technology, structure, and productivity, can influence the demand for labor. For example, as utilization of advanced technology is generally accompanied by less demand for low-skilled workers and more demand for knowledge workers. External factors such as business cycles--economic and seasonal trends--can also play a role.
Forecasting is frequently more an art than a science, providing inexact ap­proximations rather than absolute results. The ever-changing environment in which an organization operates contributes to this problem. For example, esti­mating changes in product or service demand is a basic forecasting concern, as is anticipating changes in national or regional economics. Also, the fore­casted staffing needs must be in line with the organization's financial resources.
There are two approaches to HR forecasting: quantitative and qualitative. When concentrating on human resources needs, forecasting is primarily quanti­tative in nature, and in large organizations is accomplished by highly trained specialists. Quantitative approaches to forecasting can employ sophisticated analytical models, although forecasting may be as informal as having one person who knows the organization anticipate future HR requirements. Organizational demands will ultimately determine which technique to use. Regardless of the method, however, forecasting should not be neglected, even in relatively small organizations.

Quantitative Approaches

Quantitative approaches to forecasting involve the use of statistical or mathe­matical techniques; they are the approaches used by theoreticians and pro­fessional planners. One example is trend analysis, which forecasts employment requirements based on some organizational index and is one of the most com­monly used approaches for projecting HR demand. Trend analysis is typically done by following several steps:

Trend analysis
A quantitative approach to forecasting
labor demand based on an organizational
index such as sales

First, select an appropriate business factor. This should be the best available predictor of human resources needs. Frequently, sales or value added (selling price minus costs of materials and supplies) are used as predictors in trend analy­sis. Second, plot an historical trend of the business factor in relation to number of employees. The ratio of employees to the business factor will provide a labor productivity ratio (for example, sales per employee). Third, compute the productiv­ity ratio for at least the past five years. Fourth, calculate human resources demand by dividing the business factor by the productivity ratio. Finally, project human resources demand out to the target year. This procedure is summarized in Figure 5-2 for a housing contractor.

 

 

                            
Other, more sophisticated statistical-planning methods include modeling or multiple-predictive techniques. Whereas trend analysis relies on a single factor (e.g., sales) to predict employment needs, the more advanced methods combine several factors, such as interest rates, gross national product, disposable income, and sales, to predict employment levels. Because of the high costs of developing these forecasting methods, they are used only by large organizations in relatively stable industries such as transportation, communications, and utilities.

Qualitative Approaches

In contrast to quantitative approaches, qualitative approaches to forecasting are less statistical, attempting to reconcile the interests, abilities, and aspirations of individual employees with the current and future staffing needs of an organiza­tion. In both large and small organizations, HR planners may rely on experts who assist in preparing forecasts to anticipate staffing requirements. Man­agement forecasts are the opinions (judgments) of supervisors, department managers, experts, or others knowledgeable about the organization’s future em­ployment needs.

Management forecasts
The opinions (judgments) of supervisors,
department managers, or others knowledgeable
about the organization’s future
employment needs

Another forecasting method, the Delphi technique, attempts to decrease the subjectivity of forecasts by soliciting and summarizing the judgments of a prese­lected group of individuals. The final forecast thus represents a composite group judgment. The Delphi technique requires a great deal of coordination and coop­eration in order to ensure satisfactory forecasts. This method works best in orga­nizations where dynamic technological changes affect staffing levels.
Ideally, HRP should include the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches which complement each other. This provides a more complete forecast by bringing together the contributions of both theoreticians and practitioners.

 

Supply Analysis

Once an organization has forecast its future requirements for employees, it must then determine if there are sufficient numbers and types of employees available to staff anticipated openings. Supply analysis will encompass two sources--in­ternal and external.

 

Internal Labor Supply

An internal supply analysis may begin with the preparation of staffing tables. Staffing tables are a pictorial representation of all organizational jobs, along with the numbers of employees currently occupying those jobs and future employment requirements.

Staffing tables
Pictorial representations of all organizational jobs,
along with the numbers of employees currently
occupying those jobs and future (monthly or
yearly) employment requirements

Another technique, called Markov analysis, shows the percentage (and actual number) of employees who remain in each job from one year to the next, as well as the proportions of those who are promoted, demoted, trans­ferred, or exit the organization. Markov analysis can be used to track the pattern of employee movements through various jobs and de­velop a transition matrix for forecasting labor supply.

Markov analysis
Method for tracking the pattern
of employee movements
through various jobs

In conjunction with quantitative techniques that forecast the number of employees, skill inventories can also be prepared that list each employee's educa­tion, past work experience, vocational interests, specific abilities and skills, com­pensation history, and job tenure. Of course, confidentiality is a vital concern in setting up any such inventory. Nevertheless, well-prepared and up-to-date skill inventories allow an organization to quickly match forthcoming job openings with employee backgrounds. Organizations like Zenith Data Systems, Westing­house, and the State of Illinois use computers and special programs to perform this task. When data are gathered on managers, these inventories are called management inventories.

Skill inventories
Files of education, experience, interests,
skills, etc., that allow managers to
quickly match job openings with
employee backgrounds

Both skill and management inventories can be used to develop employee re­placement charts, which list current jobholders and identify possible replacements should openings occur. Listed below is an organizational chart that shows an example of how an organization might develop a replacement chart for the managers in one of its divisions. Note that this chart provides information on the current job performance and pro­motability of possible replacements. As such, it can be used side by side with other pieces of information for succession planning--the process of identifying, developing, and tracking key individuals so that they may eventually assume top-level positions.

Replacement charts
Listings of current jobholders and persons who
are potential replacements if an opening occurs

Succession planning
The process of identifying, developing, and tracking
key individuals for executive positions

 

External Labor Supply

When an organization lacks an internal supply of employees for promotions, or when it is staffing entry-level positions, managers must consider the external supply of labor. Many factors influence labor supply including demographic changes in the population, national and regional economics, education level of the workforce, demand for specific employee skills, population mobility, and governmental policies. National and regional unem­ployment rates are often considered a general barometer of labor supply.
Fortunately, labor market analysis is aided by various published documents. Unemployment rates, labor-force projection figures, and population characteris­tics are reported by the U.S. Department of Labor. Chambers of commerce and individual state development and planning agencies also may assist with labor market analysis. The Monthly Labor Review, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor, frequently contains articles on job­holder characteristics.

 

Balancing Supply and Demand Considerations

HRP should strive for a proper balance not only between forecasting techniques and their application, but also between the emphasis placed on demand consider­ations and that placed on supply considerations. Demand considerations are based on forecasted trends in business activity. Supply considerations involve the de­termination of where and how candidates with the required qualifications are to be found to fill vacancies.
Because of the difficulty in locating applicants for the increasing number of jobs that require advanced training, this aspect of plan­ning is receiving more attention. Greater planning effort is also needed in re­cruiting members of protected classes for managerial jobs and technical jobs that require advanced levels of education.
In an effort to meet the demand for labor, organizations have several staff­ing possibilities, including hiring full-time employees, having employees work overtime, recalling those laid off, and using temporary employees. However, when HRP shows a surplus of jobholders, organizations may use terminations, work sharing, layoffs, or demotions or rely on attrition (a gradual reduction of employees through resignations, retirements, or deaths) to achieve workforce balance.
Over the past decade, early retirements have become a more and more common means for organizations to reduce excess labor supply. Organizations as diverse as state colleges, health care facilities, and travel companies encourage employees to accept early retirement by offering "sweetened" retirement benefits.

 

Organizational Downsizing

In recent years a host of organizations have undertaken the extremely painful task of downsizing and restructuring. Because of either economic or competitive pressures, organizations have found themselves with too many employees or with employees that have the wrong kinds of skills. In an effort to reconcile supply and demand considerations, companies such as Sara Lee, Digital, and America West Airlines have eliminated literally thousands of jobs. In fact, since 1979, Fortune 500 companies have cut nearly 5 million jobs--more than one out of four they once provided.
These cuts are not simply restricted to hourly workers. Technical, professional, and managerial positions are being eliminated at an unprecedented rate. Furthermore, the layoffs are not simply a result of a stagnant economy. In many cases, downsizing is part of a longer-term process of restructuring to take advantage of new technology, corporate partnerships, and cost minimization.

 

Layoff Decisions

Decisions about employee layoffs are usually based on seniority and/or perfor­mance. In some organizations, especially those with labor agreements, seniority may be the primary consideration. In other organizations, such factors as ability and fitness may take precedence over seniority in determining layoffs.
In the case of unionized organizations, the criteria for determining an em­ployee's eligibility for layoff are typically set forth in the union agreement. As a rule, seniority on the job receives significant weight in determining which em­ployees are laid off first. Similar provisions in the union agreement provide for the right of employees to be recalled for jobs that they are still qualified to perform. Organizational policy, as well as provisions in the labor agreement, should there­fore establish and define clearly the employment rights of each individual and the basis upon which layoff selections will be made and reemployment effected.
The rights of employees during layoffs, the conditions concerning their eligibil­ity for recall, and their obligations in accepting recall should also be clarified. It is common for labor agreements to preserve the reemployment rights of em­ployees laid off for periods of up to two years, providing that they do not refuse to return to work if recalled sooner.
It has become customary, however, for employers to give some degree of recognition to seniority even among employees who are not unionized. Unions generally advocate recognition of seniority because they feel that their members should be entitled to certain rights proportionate to the years they have invested in their jobs. Nevertheless, whenever seniority provides a basis for determining or even influencing HR decisions, the discretion of management is reduced accord­ingly.
One of the major disadvantages of overemphasizing seniority is that the less competent employees receive the same rewards and security as the more competent ones. Also, the practice of using seniority as the basis for deciding which workers to lay off may well have a disparate impact on women and minor­ity workers, who often have less seniority than other groups.
In cases where economic conditions have brought about layoffs, employees who were let go while in good standing may be recalled to their jobs when the economic outlook brightens and job openings occur. However, in many cases these new job openings require a different set of skills than the ones they re­placed. Identifying individuals for these jobs can be accomplished by searching among previous employees or among current employees who can be transferred; but frequently it requires searching externally in the broader labor market.

Recruiting within the Organization

Recruitment is the process of locating and encouraging potential applicants to apply for existing or anticipated job openings. During this process, efforts are made to inform the applicants fully about the qualifications required to perform the job and the career opportunities the organization can offer them. Whether or not a particular job vacancy will be filled by someone from within the organization or from outside will, of course, depend upon the availability of personnel, the organization's HR policies, and the requirements of the job to be staffed.

 

Advantages of Recruiting from Within

Most organizations try to follow a policy of filling job vacancies above the entry-level position through promotions and transfers. By filling vacancies in this way, an organization can capitalize on the investment it has made in recruiting, selecting, training, and developing its current employees.
Promotion serves to reward employees for past performance and is intended to encourage them to continue their efforts. It also gives other employees reason to anticipate that similar efforts by them will lead to promotion, thus improving morale within the organization.
This is particularly true for members of protected classes who have encountered difficulties in finding employment and have often faced even greater difficulty in advancing within an organization. Most organizations have integrated promotion policies as an essential part of their EEO/AA programs.
If an organization’s promotion policy is to have maximum motivational value, employees must be made aware of that policy. The following is an example of a policy statement that an organization might prepare:

“Promotion from within” is generally recognized as a foundation of good employment practice, and it is the policy of our museum to promote from within whenever possible when filling a vacancy. The job vacancy will be posted for five calendar days to give all qualified full- and part-time personnel an equal opportunity to apply.

        While a transfer lacks the motivational value of a promotion, it sometimes can serve to protect employees from layoff or to broaden their job experiences. Furthermore, the transferred employee’s familiarity with the organization and its operations can eliminate the orientation and training costs that recruitment from the outside would entail. Most importantly, the transferee’s performance record is likely to be a more accurate predictor of the candidate’s success than the data gained about outside applicants.

 

Methods of Locating Qualified Job Candidates

The effective use of internal sources requires a system for locating qualified job candidates and for enabling those who consider themselves qualified to apply for the opening. Qualified job candidates within the organization can be located by computerized record systems, by job posting and bidding, and by recalling those who have been laid off.

Computerized Record Systems

Computers have made possible the creation of data banks that contain the complete records and qualifications of each employee within an organization. Westinghouse Electric, for example, has developed a computer program named HuRBIE (Human Resource Basic Information Environment) that allows man­agers to access information from the Personnel Records Information Systems Management (PRISM) database. Similarly, Employment Solutions, a subsidiary of IBM, has developed a resume-tracking system that allows managers to query an on-line database of resumes.
Similar to the skills inventories, these information systems allow an organization to screen its entire work force in a matter of minutes to locate suitable candidates to fill an internal opening. These data can also be used to predict the career paths of employees and to anticipate when and where promotion opportunities may arise. Since the value of the data depends on how current the data are, the record system must include provisions for recording changes in employee qualifications and job placements as they occur.

Job Posting and Bidding

Organizations may communicate information about job openings through a pro­cess referred to as job posting and bidding. This process consists largely of post­ing vacancy notices on bulletin boards and websites, but may also include use of designated posting centers, employee publications, special “announcement handouts," direct mail, and public-address messages.

Job posting and bidding
Posting vacancy notices and maintaining
lists of employees looking for
upgraded positions

The system of job posting and bidding can provide many benefits to an or­ganization. However, these benefits may not be realized unless employees believe the system is being administered fairly. Therefore, to reap the full advantages of job posting, organizations should follow the administrative guidelines for job posting and bidding programs presented below.

JOB POSTING PROCEDURES

Establish and widely distribute applicant eligibility requirements for employees wishing to use the bidding procedure. Develop job notices that are complete, including the job’s essential functions and responsibilities and any special (unusual) tasks that must be performed. List the minimum abilities, skills, experience, education, or special knowledge needed by applicants. Communicate the availability of jobs to all affected employees. Use several notice methods if possible. Establish posting periods and state any filing constraints if appropriate. Develop an applicant-review procedure and feedback system that employees will accept. Establish an appeals procedure for those employees wishing to challenge selection decisions.

 

Job bidding is more effective when it is part of a career devel­opment program in which employees are made aware of opportunities available to them within the organization. For example, HR departments may provide new employees with literature on job progression that describes the lines of job ad­vancement, training requirements for each job, and skills and abilities needed as they move up the job-progression ladder.

 

Limitations of Recruiting from Within

 

Sometimes certain jobs at the middle and upper levels that require specialized training and experience cannot be filled from within the organization and must be filled from the outside. This is especially common in small organizations. Also, for certain openings it may be necessary to hire individuals from the out­side who have gained from another employer the knowledge and expertise re­quired for these jobs.
Even though HR policy encourages job openings to be filled from within the organization, potential candidates from the outside should be considered in order to prevent the inbreeding of ideas and attitudes. Applicants hired from the out­side, particularly for certain technical and managerial positions, can be a source of new ideas and may bring with them the latest knowledge acquired from their previous employers.
Excessive reliance upon internal sources can create the risk of “employee cloning.” Furthermore, it is not uncommon for firms in competitive fields such as high technology to attempt to gain secrets from competitors by hiring away their employees.

 

Recruiting Outside the Organization

Unless there is to be a reduction in the workforce, a replacement from outside must eventually be found to fill a job left vacant when a jobholder moves to a new slot in the organization. Thus, when the president or CEO of the organization retires, a chain reaction of promotions may subsequently occur. This creates other managerial openings throughout the organization. The question to be re­solved therefore is not whether to bring people into the organization, but rather at which level they are to be brought in.
In the past few years, organizations such as Eastman Kodak, Westinghouse, and Goodyear have brought in outsiders to be their new CEOs. In fact, an astounding 31 percent of Fortune 500 companies who replaced their CEOs in recent years, did so by hiring executives from outside their companies. In many of these cases, hiring someone from the outside was seen as essential for revitalizing the organizations.

 

The Labor Market

 

The labor market, or the area from which applicants are to be recruited, will vary with the type of job to be filled and the amount of compensation to be paid for the job. Recruitment for executive and technical jobs requiring a high degree of knowledge and skill may be national or even international in scope. Most col­leges and universities, for example, conduct national employment searches to fill top administrative positions.

Labor market

The area from which

applicants are to be recruited

        Recruitment for jobs that require relatively little skill, however, may encompass only a small geographic area. The reluctance of people to relocate may cause them to turn down offers of employment, thereby eliminating them from employment consideration beyond the local labor mar­ket. However, by offering an attractive level of compensation and by helping to defray moving costs, employers may induce some applicants to move.
The ease with which employees can commute to work will also influence the boundaries of the labor market. Insufficient public transportation or extreme traffic congestion on the streets and freeways can limit the distance employees are willing to travel to work, particularly to jobs of low pay. Also, population mi­gration from the cities to the suburbs has had its effect on labor markets. If suit­able employment can be obtained near where they live or if they can work at home, many suburbanites are less likely to accept or remain in jobs in the central city.

 

Outside Sources of Recruitment

The outside sources from which employers recruit will vary with the type of job to be filled. A computer programmer, for example, is not likely to be recruited from the same source as a machine operator. Trade schools can provide appli­cants for entry-level positions, though these recruitment sources are not as use­ful when highly skilled employees are needed.
The condition of the labor market may also help to determine which re­cruiting sources an organization will use. During periods of high unemployment, organizations may be able to maintain an adequate supply of qualified applicants from unsolicited resumes alone. A tight labor market, one with low unemploy­ment, may force the employer to advertise heavily and/or seek assistance from local employment agencies. How successful an organization has been in reaching its affirmative action goals may be still another factor in determining the sources from which to recruit. Typically, an employer at any given time will find it nec­essary to utilize several recruitment sources.

Advertisements

One of the most common methods of attracting applicants is through advertise­ments. While newspapers and trade journals are the media used most often, radio, television, billboards, posters, and electronic mail are also utilized. Adver­tising has the advantage of reaching a large audience of possible applicants.
Some degree of selectivity can be achieved by using newspapers and journals di­rected toward a particular group of readers. Professional journals, trade journals, and publications of unions and various fraternal or nonprofit organizations fall into this category.
The preparation of recruiting advertise­ments is not only time-consuming, it also requires creativity in developing de­sign and message content. Well-written advertisements highlight the major assets of the position while showing the responsiveness of the organization to the job and career needs of the applicants. Also, there appears to be a correlation be­tween the accuracy and completeness of information provided in advertisements and the recruitment success of the organization. Among the information typi­cally included in advertisements is that the recruiting organization is an equal opportunity employer.

Eight Points for Developing Effective Newspaper Advertisements

Determine the readership and geographic area served by the newspaper. Consider placing ads in sections of the paper such as the sports, entertainment, or television section to reach people who are currently employed and who may not be reading the classified section. Use small community newspapers or weekly classified publications that reach only a specific market segment or geographical area. Develop ads that are creative and distinctive. Employ eye-catching images and borders. Use language that is clear and creates interest in the position. Consult your organization's marketing or advertising department for suggestions for copy and graphics that will attract readers' attention. Use different copy formats to reach different types of applicants. To reach impulse applicants, consider using weekend telephone numbers to attract applicants currently employed or those without prepared resumes. Attach “clip-out” coupons to the ad that applicants can send in to the organization to obtain additional information about the advertised position. The convenience of this feature might attract potential applicants who have given only slight consideration to a job change. Make sure that job specifications clearly define applicant skill, ability, and educational requirements.

 

Advertising can sometimes place a severe burden on an organization's em­ployment office. Even though the specifications for the openings are described thoroughly in the advertisement, many applicants who know they do not meet the job requirements may still be attracted. They may apply with the hope that the employer will not be able to find applicants who do meet the specifications.

Public Employment Agencies

Each of the fifty states maintains an employment agency that is responsible for administering its unemployment insurance program. Many of the state agencies bear such titles as Department of Employment or Department of Human Re­sources. They are subject to certain regulations and controls administered by the U.S. Employment Services (USES).
State agencies maintain local public employment offices in most communi­ties of any size.
Individuals who become unemployed must register at one of these offices and be available for “suitable employment” in order to receive their weekly unemployment checks. Consequently, public employment agencies are able to refer to employers with job openings those applicants with the required skills who are available for employment.
USES has developed a nationwide computerized job bank that lists job openings, and state employment offices are connected to this job bank. This can be viewed on their website. The computerized job bank helps facilitate the movement of job applicants to different geographic areas. Most of these offices now have a local job bank book that is published on various websites. Employer openings are listed along with other pertinent information, such as number of openings, pay rates, and job specifications.
The local job bank makes it possible for employment interviewers in an agency to have a list of all job openings in the geographic area for which applicants assigned to them might qualify. Furthermore, applicants looking for a specific job can review the information and apply directly to the organization having the opening.
In addition to matching unemployed applicants with job openings, public employment agencies may assist employers with employment testing, job analysis, evaluation programs, and community wage surveys.

Private Employment Agencies

Charging a fee enables private employment agencies to tailor their services to the specific needs of their clients. It is common for agencies to specialize in serving a specific occupational area or professional field. Depending upon who is receiving the most service, the fee may be paid by either the employer or the jobseeker or both. It is not uncom­mon for private employment agencies to charge an employer a 25 to 30 percent fee, based on the position's annual salary, if they hire an applicant found by the agency.
Private employment agencies differ in the services they offer, their profes­sionalism, and the caliber of their counselors. If counselors are paid on a com­mission basis, their desire to do a professional job may be offset by their desire to earn a commission. Thus they may encourage jobseekers to accept jobs for which they are not suited.

Executive Search Firms

In contrast to public and private employment agencies, which help jobseekers find the right job, executive search firms (often called "headhunters") help em­ployers find the right person for a job. They seek out candidates with qualifica­tions that match the requirements of the positions their client firm is seeking to fill. Executive search firms do not advertise in the media for job candidates, nor do they accept a fee from the individual being placed.
The fees charged by search firms may range from 30 to 40 percent of the an­nual salary for the position to be filled. For the recruitment of senior executives, this fee is paid by the client firm whether or not the recruiting effort results in a hire.

Educational Institutions

Educational institutions typically are a source of young applicants with formal training but with relatively little full-time work experience. High schools are usually a source of employees for clerical and blue-collar jobs. Community col­leges, with their various types of specialized training, can provide candidates for technical jobs. These institutions can also be a source of applicants for a vari­ety of white-collar jobs, including those in the sales and retail fields. Some management-trainee jobs are also staffed from this source.
For technical and managerial positions, colleges and universities are gener­ally the primary source. However, the suitability of college graduates for open positions often depends on their major field of study. Organizations seeking ap­plicants in the technical and professional areas, for example, are currently faced with a shortage of qualified candidates. To attract graduates in areas of low sup­ply, managers are employing innovative recruitment techniques such as work-study programs, internships, low-interest loans, and scholarships.
Some employers fail to take full advantage of college and university re­sources because of a poor recruitment program. Consequently, their recruitment efforts fail to attract many potentially good applicants. Another common weak­ness is the failure to maintain a planned and continuing effort on a long-term basis. Furthermore, some recruiters sent to college campuses are not sufficiently trained or prepared to talk to interested candidates about career opportunities or the requirements of specific openings.
Attempts to visit too many campuses instead of concentrating on selected institutions and the inability to use the campus placement office effectively are other recruiting weaknesses. Misman­agement of applicant visits to the organization’s headquarters and the failure to follow up on individual prospects or to obtain hiring commitments from higher management are among other mistakes that have caused employers to lose well-qualified prospects.

Employee Referrals

The recruitment efforts of an organization can be aided by employee referrals, or recommendations made by current employees. Managers have found that the quality of employee-referred applicants is normally quite high, since employees are generally hesitant to recommend individuals who might not perform well. The effectiveness of this recruitment effort can be increased by paying commis­sions to employees when they make a successful “recruitment sale.” Other recruitment incentives used by organizations include complimentary dinners, discounts on merchandise, all-expense-paid trips, and free insurance.
Negative factors associated with employee referrals include the possibility of inbreeding and the violation of EEO regulations. Since employees and their re­ferrals tend to have similar backgrounds, employers who rely heavily on employee referrals to fill job openings may intentionally or unintentionally screen out, and thereby discriminate against, protected classes. Furthermore, organizations may choose not to employ relatives of current employees. The practice of hiring rela­tives, referred to as nepotism, can invite charges of favoritism, especially in ap­pointments to desirable positions.

Nepotism
A preference for hiring
relatives of current employees

 

Unsolicited Applications and Resumes

Many employers receive unsolicited applications and resumes from individuals who may or may not be good prospects for employment. Even though the per­centage of acceptable applicants from this source may not be high, it is a source that cannot be ignored. In fact, it is often believed that individuals who on their own initiative contact the employer will be better employees than those re­cruited through college placement services or newspaper advertisements.
Good public relations dictates that any person contacting an organization for a job be treated with courtesy and respect. If there is no possibility of employment in the organization at present or in the future, the applicant should be tactfully and frankly informed of this fact. Telling applicants, “Fill out an application, and we will keep it on file,” when there is no hope for their employment is not fair to the applicant.

Professional Organizations

Many professional organizations and societies offer a placement service to mem­bers as one of their benefits. Listings of members seeking employment may be ad­vertised in their journals or publicized at their national meetings. A placement center is usually established at national meetings for the mutual benefit of em­ployers and jobseekers.

Labor Unions

Labor unions can be a principal source of applicants for blue-collar and some professional jobs. Some unions, such as those in the maritime, printing, and construction industries, maintain hiring halls that can provide a supply of applicants, particularly for short-term needs. Employers wishing to use this recruitment source should contact the local union under consideration for employer eligibility requirements and applicant availability.

Temporary Help Agencies

The temporary services industry is one of the fastest-growing recruitment sources. An estimated nine out of ten U.S. companies use temporary employees, and the U.S. Department of Commerce predicts that of all American industries, temporary services will be one of the strongest employers through the 1990s. Organizations such as Citibank, General Mills, and Avis use “temps” for occasional short-term assignments. Small business managers use temporary help when they cannot justify hiring a full-time employee, such as for vacation fill-ins, during peak work periods, and as a replacement during an employee’s pregnancy leave or sick leave.
Temporary employees, however, are being used more and more to fill positions once staffed by permanent employees. This practice is growing because temporaries can be laid off quickly, and with less cost, when work lessens. Some companies use a just-in-time staffing approach where a core staff of employees is augmented by a trained and highly skilled supplementary workforce.
The use of temporaries is a viable way to maintain proper staffing levels. Also, the employment costs of temporaries are often lower than those of permanent employees because temps are not provided with benefits and can be dismissed without the need to file unemployment insurance claims. Used predominantly in office clerical positions, temporaries are becoming more and more common in legal work, engineering, computer programming, and other jobs requiring advanced professional training.

Employee Leasing

National Staff Network, Staff Services, Inc., and Action Staffing are three of a growing number of employee-leasing firms. Employee leasing, also called “contract staffing” or “staff leasing,” became popular after 1982 with passage of the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act. Unlike temporary help agencies, which supply workers only for limited periods, employee-leasing companies place their employees with subscribers on a permanent basis.
In its most common form, employee leasing is a process whereby an employer terminates a number of employees who are then hired by a third party—the employee-leasing company—which then leases the employees back to the original organization. However, leasing companies also hire workers on a continual basis and then lease them to requesting organizations. The leasing company performs all the HR duties of an employer--hiring, payroll, performance appraisal, benefits administration, and other day-to-day HR activities—and in return is paid a placement fee of normally 5 to 10 percent of payroll cost. Some leasing companies charge payroll cost plus a fixed fee per employee.

Employee leasing

Process of dismissing employees who are then
hired by a leasing company (that handles all
HR-related activities) and then contracting with
that company to lease back the employees

 

Improving the Effectiveness of External Recruitment

 

With all of the uncertainties inherent in external recruiting, it is sometimes dif­ficult to determine whether or not an organization's efforts to locate promising talent are effective and/or cost-efficient. However, there are several things the HR department can do to maximize the probability of success. These include calculating yield ratios on recruiting sources, training organizational recruiters, and conducting realistic job previews.

Yield Ratios

Yield ratios help indicate which recruitment sources are most effective at pro­ducing qualified job candidates. Quite simply, a yield ratio is the percentage of applicants from a particular source that make it to the next stage in the selection process. For example, if 100 resumes were obtained from an employment agency, and 17 of these applicants were invited for an on-site interview, the yield ratio for that agency would be 17 percent (17/100).

Yield ratio

The percentage of applicants from a recruitment source

that made it to the next phase of the selection process

This yield ratio could then be re­calculated for each subsequent stage in the selection process (e.g., after the interview and again after the final offer), which would result in a cumulative yield ratio. By calculating and comparing yield ratios for each recruitment source, it is possible not only to find out which sources produce qualified applicants, but which sources are the most cost-effective.

Organizational Recruiters

Who performs the recruitment function depends mainly on the size of the orga­nization. For large employers, professional HR recruiters are hired and trained to find new employees. In smaller organizations, recruitment may be done by a HR generalist; or if the organization has no HR position, recruitment may be carried out by managers and/or supervisors. At some companies, members of work teams take part in the selection of new team members.
Regardless of who does the recruiting, it is imperative that these individuals have a good understanding of the knowledge, skills, abilities, experiences, and other characteristics required for the job. All too often, a new person in the HR department or a line manager may be given a recruitment assignment, even be­fore they have been given interview training, before they fully understand the job, or before they fully comprehend the values and goals of the organization.
It is important to remember that recruiters have an influence on applicants' job decisions. Recruiters are often a main reason why applicants select one orga­nization over another. One study showed that recruiters may have significant impacts on perceived job attractiveness, regard for job and company, and inten­tion to accept a job. Therefore choosing personable, enthusiastic, competent re­cruiters has an impact on the success of an organization's recruitment program.

Realistic Job Previews

Another way organizations may be able to increase the effectiveness of their re­cruitment efforts is to provide job applicants with a realistic job preview (RJP). An RJP informs applicants about all aspects of the job, including both its desir­able and undesirable facets. In contrast, a typical job preview only presents the job in positive terms.

Realistic job preview (RJP)

Informing applicants about all aspects

of the job, including both its desirable
and undesirable facets

The RJP may also include a tour of the working area, com­bined with a discussion of any negative health or safety considerations. Propo­nents of the RJP believe that applicants who are given realistic information regarding a position are more likely to remain on the job and be successful, be­cause there will be fewer unpleasant surprises. RJP will produce these positive results:

• Improved employee job satisfaction
• Reduced voluntary turnover
• Enhanced communication through honesty and openness
• Realistic job expectations

 

Like other HR techniques, however, RJPs must be tailored to the needs of the organization and should include a balanced presentation of positive and negative job information.

Recruitment of Protected Classes

In meeting their legal obligation to provide equal employment opportunity, em­ployers often develop a formal EEO/AA program. An essential part of any EEO/AA policy must be an affirmative effort to recruit members of protected classes.

 

Recruitment of Women

Women constitute the largest numbers among the protected classes in the USA. In 1993, they accounted for 45 percent of all workers and 60 percent of the total labor-force growth. Women will be the major source of new entrants into the U.S. labor force over the next thirteen years. They will make up 62 percent of the net labor-force growth, or 15 million workers, by the year 2005.
Contrary to a once-common belief, most women do not go to work merely to “get out of the house” or to fulfill psychological needs. It is essential for employers to recognize that a majority of women, like men, work because of economic necessity. In recent years, over 60 percent of all women in the workforce have been responsible for supporting themselves, and three out of five of them are heads of house­holds.
A major employment obstacle for women is the stereotyped thinking that persists within our society. Females are still viewed as possessing fewer characteristics of the “ideal” manager profile. Another barrier has been that women in the past were not as likely as men to have professional training and preparation for en­trance or advancement into management positions. This situation is changing, however, with a significant increase in the enrollment of women in programs lead­ing to degrees in management.

 

Entrance of Men into Traditional Jobs for Women

 

EEO/AA requirements have also led to the recruitment of men for jobs tradition­ally held by women. More and more men are working as secretaries, phone opera­tors, flight attendants, and nurses. While the entrance of males into jobs once exclusively held by women will deprive women of employment opportunities, in the long run both groups will benefit.
The willingness of men and women to as­sert themselves in jobs traditionally held by one sex will help make employment conditions better and more equal for both sexes. Higher wages, better working conditions, and greater job status for both men and women could be the result.

 

Recruitment of Minorities

Since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, many members of minority groups have been able to realize a substantial improvement in their social and economic well-being. Increasing numbers of African Americans and Hispanics are now in the upper income-tax brackets by virtue of their entrance into pro­fessional, engineering, and managerial positions. However, the proportion of mi­norities in these areas is still substantially below their proportions in the total population. Unemployment among minorities, particularly the youth, continues to be at a critically high level. Undoubtedly, these rates are considerably higher during periods of economic downturn when employment opportunities become harder to find.
For many minorities who live predominantly in the inner cities, employ­ment opportunities still remain exceedingly limited because of educational and societal disadvantages. Also, because their social environment can sometimes lie apart from the mainstream, traditional recruitment methods may prove ineffec­tive in reaching them. Community action agencies, civil rights organizations, and church groups within the communities can provide a means for recruiters to reach inner-city residents. Special media advertising targeted to this group also may prove effective.
Unless minorities can be retained within an organization, EEO/AA pro­grams are likely to prove ineffective. If minority employees are to be retained, they, like any employee, must be made to feel welcome in their jobs, as well as to feel that their efforts contribute to the success of the organization.

 

Recruitment of the Disabled

Throughout the past decade, only about 10 percent of severely disabled adults of working age have been employed in the U.S. labor force. However, fully two-thirds of disabled adults without jobs say they want to work. These individuals have often been rejected for employment because of the mistaken belief that there were no jobs within an organization that they might be able to perform effectively.
Fears that the disabled might have more accidents or that they might aggravate existing disabilities have also deterred their employment. The lack of special facilities for physically impaired persons, particularly those in wheelchairs, has been a further employment restriction. However, physica1 ob­structions are being eliminated as employers are making federally legislated im­provements to accommodate disabled workers.
Efforts to eliminate discrimination in hiring, promotion, and compensation of people with disabilities are expected to increase dramatically as organizations come into compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Thanks to federal regulations, many organizations are beginning to recognize that physi­cal disabilities may constitute limitations only with respect to certain job re­quirements. An employee in a wheelchair who might not be able to perform duties that involve certain physical activities may be quite capable of working at a bench or a desk.

Advantages of Employing Disabled Persons

The most frequently cited advantages of employing disabled persons include their dependability, superior attendance, loyalty, and low turnover. Employers often find disabled workers to be more intelligent, better motivated, and better qualified than their nondisabled counterparts. However, the superior perfor­mance attributed to disabled workers could also be the result of hidden biases to­ward them. These biases may cause employers to require that the disabled be overqualified for an entry-level job and to avoid promoting them above it.

The Less-Publicized Disabilities

In addition to the widely recognized forms of disability, there are others that can limit hiring and advancement opportunities. One such disability is unattractive­ness, against which employers can be biased even if unconsciously. Unattractive individuals are said to be those whose facial features are considered unpleasant but who do not possess physical disfiguration that would put them in the physi­cally disabled category. Another less-publicized disability in gaining and retain­ing employment is obesity. In extreme cases, courts have held obesity to be a legitimate physical disability.
Finally, there is the disability of illiteracy. It is estimated that between 20 million and 80 million Americans are functionally illiterate. These individu­als lack the reading and writing abilities needed to handle the minimal demands of daily living or job performance. Further, there may be as many as 45 million more adults who are only marginally literate.

I
Recruitment of Older Persons

There is a definite trend by organizations toward hiring older persons. The move has come as a result of changing workforce demographics and a change in the attitudes of employers and employees. Organizations realize that older workers have proven employment experience, have job “savvy,” and are reliable em­ployees. Older individuals are an excellent recruitment source to staff part-time and full-time positions that are hard to fill.

SUMMARY
I
As organizations plan for their future, top management and strategic planners must recognize that strategic-planning decisions affect--and are affected by--HR functions. On the one hand, HRP plays a reactive role in making certain the right number and type of employees are available to implement a chosen business plan. On the other hand, HRP can proactively identify, and initiate programs needed to develop organizational capabilities upon which future strategies can be built.
HRP is a systematic process that involves forecasting demand for labor, per­forming supply analysis, and balancing supply and demand considerations. Fore­casting demand requires using either quantitative or qualitative methods to identify the number and type of people needed to meet organizational objectives.
Supply analysis involves determining if there are sufficient employees available within the organization to meet demand and also determining whether potential employees are available on the job market. Reconciling supply and demand re­quires a host of activities, including internal and external recruitment.
Employers usually find it advantageous to fill by means of internal promo­tion and transfer as many openings as possible above the entry level. By recruit­ing from within, an organization can capitalize on previous investments made in recruiting, selecting, training, and developing its current employees.
Further, in­ternal promotions can reward employees for past performance and send a signal to other employees that their future efforts will pay off. However, potential can­didates from the outside should occasionally be considered in order to prevent the inbreeding of ideas and attitudes.
Filling jobs above the entry level often requires managers to rely upon outside sources. These outside sources are also utilized to fill jobs with special qualifications, to avoid excessive inbreeding, and to acquire new ideas and tech­nology. Which outside sources and methods are used in recruiting will depend on the recruitment goals of the organization, the conditions of the labor market, and the specifications of the jobs to be filled.
The legal requirements governing EEO make it mandatory that employers exert a positive effort to recruit and promote members of protected classes so that their representation at all levels within the organization will approximate their proportionate numbers in the labor market. These efforts include recruiting not only those members who are qualified, but also those who can be made qualified with reasonable training and assistance.

KEY TERMS
Employee leasing Human resources planning (HRP) Job posting and bidding Labor market Management forecasts Markov analysis Nepotism Organizational capability	Realistic job preview (RJP) Replacement charts Skill inventories Staffing tables Succession planning Trend analysis Yield ratio