Leaders direct and guide followers in the organization, recognizing both roles are critical to the success of the organization. There is a positive relationship between leaders and followers in organizations, and a distinct difference between leadership and management. Leaders may be autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire in their approach. This chapter divides leadership theories into four schemes correlating to universal trait theories, universal behavioral theories, contingent trait theories, and contingent behavioral theories. Several theories are examined, and the relationship between leaders and followers is discussed. Specific emphasis is placed on the managerial grid, Fiedler's theory, path-goal theory, normative decision theory, and the situational leadership model.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define leadership and followership.
2. Discuss the differences between leadership and management.
3. Distinguish among transformational, transactional, and charismatic leaders.
4. Compare autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles.
5. Explain initiating structure and consideration, leader behaviors, and the Managerial Grid.
6. Explain Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership.
7. Distinguish among the path-goal theory, the Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and the situational leadership model.
8. Discuss the characteristics of effective and dynamic followers.
The following key terms are introduced in Chapter 11:
leadership
formal leadership
informal leadership
followership
leader
manager
charismatic leadership
autocratic style
democratic style
laissez-faire style
initiating structure
consideration
P-oriented behavior
M-oriented behavior
Managerial Grid
organization man manager (5,5))
authority-obedience manager (9,1)
country club manger (1,9)
team manager (9,9)
impoverished manager (1,1)
least preferred coworker (LPC)
task structure
position power
leader-member relations
dynamic follower
I. LOOKING AHEAD: Howard Schultz's Leadership Role in Changing Starbucks Coffee
II. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leaders are either formal leaders (officially sanctioned based on power and authority) or informal leaders (unofficial leadership accorded by other members of the organization). All leaders guide and direct the behavior of other people in the work environment. Leaders cannot accomplish goals without the assistance of followers. Followership is the process of being guided and directed by the leader.
Leaders may not be good managers, and vice versa. John Kotter views good managers as controlling complexity and leaders producing change. Others have said that managers manage things, leaders lead people. Another analogy that has been useful is: If you want to know how to build a bridge, ask a manager. If you want to know if you need a bridge built, ask a leader.
III. TYPE I UNIVERSAL TRAIT THEORIES
These trait theories were the first types of theories proposed.
A. Physical Attributes, Personality, and Ability
Physical attributes that were mentioned as leadership traits are height, weight, physique, energy, health and appearance. There are biases for and against certain types of physical attributes, yet the research does not indicate these attributes are inherently better and a leadership characteristic. Personality characteristics have been useful, and ability measurements are the closest match of the three categories to being relevant. However, trait research has not been conclusive, which has led to the other approaches to determine leadership styles.
Transformational leaders lead through charisma, vision, and example.
C. Leaders as Distinct Personalities
Zaleznik makes an argument that leaders and managers are have distinct types of personalities.
Leaders agitate for change and new approaches, while managers advocate stability and the status quo. Leaders are similar in mission to transformational approaches. Many organizational members have a stake in the existing structure, so attempting change is a definite challenge for leaders. Managers spend time planning, organizing and controlling, while leaders set directions, align people and motivate them to action.
Leaders cannot achieve their goals without the support of followers.
C. Women Leaders
An important question is: do women and men lead differently? Research suggests that female leaders act out leadership as an individualized, interpersonal process.
D. Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership is characterized by personal abilities and talents that have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. Not all charismatic leaders are the stereotypical version that students may visualize as negative.
IV. TYPE II UNIQUE BEHAVIORALTHEORIES
Type II theories focus on leaders actions and behaviors.
A. Leadership Style and Emotional Climate at Work
Kurt Lewin divided leadership styles into three categories, autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire styles. Autocratic leaders use strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the rules, regulations, and relationships in the work environment. Students may view military leadership as autocratic, although this is a stereotype that has changed. A democratic leader takes collaborative, reciprocal, interactive actions with followers concerning the work and work environment. The laissez-faire leader fails to accept the responsibility of the position. Many students confuse laissez-faire and democratic leadership styles.
B. Leadership Behaviors
Leadership behavior is often determined by the LBDQ, which compares initiating structure and consideration. A leader with an initiating structure style defines and organizes work relationships and roles, and is clear about ways of getting things done. In contrast, the consideration style leader aims at creating a nurturing, friendly, warm working relationship.
C. Leadership Styles in Japan
The 30-year program founded in Japan studied U.S. leadership approaches. The Performance-Maintenance Theory of Leadership categorized leaders into P-oriented behavior or M-oriented behavior. P-oriented behavior encourages a fast work pace, emphasizing good quality and high accuracy, while maintaining concern for rules. In contrast, M-oriented leaders are sensitive to employees' feelings, try to reduce stress, and appreciate follower contributions.
F. The Managerial Grid
Blake and Mouton developed the Managerial Grid based on the Ohio State leadership studies. The Managerial Grid is a matrix that divides types of leaders into levels of concern for either production or concern for people. The five categories of the Grid are: organization man manager (5,5), a manager who maintains the status quo; authority-obedience manager (9,1), a manager who emphasizes efficient production; country-club manager (1,9) a manager who creates a happy, comfortable work environment; team manager (9,9) a manager who builds a highly productive team of committed people; and impoverished manager (1,1) a manager who exerts just enough effort to avoid being fired.
The grid addresses both the behavior and the attitude of the leader. The grid would evaluate the team leader as the best style of leader behavior.
V. TYPE III CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Type III theories of leadership are concerned with identifying the situationally specific conditions in which leaders with particular traits are effective. The difference in Type III and Type I theories is that these traits must be in relationship with the situation, rather than the trait being the overriding impact of the style.
A. Fiedler's Contingency Theory
Fiedler's theory espouses that leaders are task-oriented or relationship-oriented, depending on how the leaders obtain their primary need gratification. Task-oriented leaders are primarily gratified by accomplishing tasks, whereas relationship-oriented leaders are gratified by good, comfortable interpersonal relationships. The outcome of the style has to do with the situation in which it is enacted. To determine the fit, Fiedler developed a scale to determine the type of individual a leader would prefer working with. The LPC, or least preferred co-worker is the individual that you would least like to work with over your career. Task structure refers to the number and clarity of rules, regulations, and procedures for getting the work done. Position power refers to the leader’s legitimate authority to evaluate and reward performance, punish errors, and demote group members. The quality of leader-member relations is measured by the Group-Atmosphere Scale.
B. Leadership Effectiveness
Fiedler proposes that it is unlikely that a leader will change behavior to fit the situation. Consequently, if possible, the situation should be altered to complement the leader's style. This contingency theory emphasizes the contribution of the leader's situation. The situation has three dimensions: task structure, position power, and leader-member relations. A favorable leadership situation is one that has a structured task, strong position power, and good leader-member relations. Task-oriented leaders are effective in either highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations.
VI. TYPE IV SITUATIONAL BEHAVIOR THEORIES
Type IV theories identify the specific leader behaviors that are most effective in specific leadership situations. As such, they are classified as contingent behavioral theories.
A. The Path-Goal Theory
Path-goal theory considers the behavior and the situation for the leader. However, the path-goal approach would support that leaders can change their style and behavior. This theory is based on the expectancy theory of motivation. Path-goal divides leadership behavior into directive leadership, supportive leadership, participative and achievement-oriented leadership styles.
B. Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Decision Theory
The normative decision theory refers to a sequential set of rules that should be followed to determine the level of participation required by a leader in a given situation. This theory gives credence to authoritarian approaches as well as democratic approaches, specifying that through a decision tree, the best decision style will be apparent. This style is based on five degrees of participation from followers. This theory was presented in Chapter 9, so it will not be new to students.
C. The Situational Leadership Model
The maturity level of the followers dictates the role of the leader in the situational leadership model. The positive side of this model is that it focuses on the followers as the key decision variable for the leader to determine a style that is appropriate. The point of this model is that when followers become mature, less task-oriented and relationship-oriented behavior is needed. Leadership can be delegated to mature followers.
VII. GUIDELINES FOR LEADERSHIP
Although there is not one definitive style that is preferable in all situations, there are guidelines that are useful in most leadership approaches. Leaders and organizations should appreciate talents and variety among leaders, since there is no single best style of leadership. However, there are organizational preferences, and leaders should match their style with the organizational culture. In addition, leaders should vary their leadership style to fit the situation. Finally, leaders are likely to be good followers.
VIII. FOLLOWERSHIP
This is a relatively new approach and topic, so the research accompanying the topic is scant. Followers have been viewed historically as either passive or autonomous. New concepts of empowerment and self-managed work team have altered the views of the follower role and have increased the role's importance in organizations.
A. Types of Followers
Followers are classified as active or passive, and as independent critical thinkers versus dependent, uncritical thinkers. Effective followers practice self-management and self-responsibility.
Servant leadership is an active, powerful, dynamic form of leadership that at times doubles for followership. There are five components of a leader as servant. The leader as servant (1) takes the people and their work seriously, (2) listens and takes the cues from the followers, (3) heals wounds of the followers and the team, (4) is self-effacing, and (5) is a steward.
B. The Dynamic Follower
A dynamic follower is a follower who is A responsible steward of his or her job, is effective in managing the relationship with the boss, and practices self-management.
The Challenge 11.2 is a query whether or not students are dynamic followers.
IX. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP
Globalization will increase the information available on differences in leadership styles. Limited research has indicated that there are great differences in styles among ethnic cultures.
X. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: LEADERS AND FOLLOWERS AS PARTNERS
XI. LOOKING BACK: Focusing the Shooting Stars
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Leadership is the process of guiding and directing the behavior of followers in organizations. Followership is the process of being guided and directed by a leader. Leaders and followers are companions in these processes.
A leader creates meaningful change in organizations, whereas a manager controls complexity. Charismatic leaders have a profound impact on their followers.
Autocratic leaders create high pressure for followers, whereas democratic leaders create healthier environments for followers.
Two distinct dimensions of leader behavior are labeled initiating structure and consideration, alternatively labeled P-oriented behavior and M-oriented behavior, respectively, in Japan.
The five styles in the Managerial Grid are organization man manager, authority-obedience manager, country club manager, team manager, and impoverished manager.
According to the contingency theory, task-oriented leaders are most effective in highly favorable or highly unfavorable leadership situations, and relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable leadership situations.
The path-goal theory, Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and situational leadership model say that a leader should adjust his or her behavior to the situation and should appreciate diversity among followers.
Effective, dynamic followers are competent and active in their work, assertive, independent thinkers, sensitive to their bosses' needs and demands, and responsible self-managers. Servant leadership and dynamic followership go together.
1. Define leadership and followership. Distinguish between formal leadership and informal leadership.
Leaders guide and direct the behaviors of followers in organizations. On the other hand, followers allow the guidance of the leader. Formal leadership is sanctioned by power and authority. Informal leadership is accorded to an individual by other members of the organization.
2. Discuss transformational and charismatic leadership. Would you expect these styles of leadership to exist in all cultures? Differ across cultures?
Kotter distinguishes managers as involved with processes such as planning, organizing and controlling. On the other hand, leaders are involved with processes that set directions for the organization, align people with directions through empowerment, and motivate the organizational followers to action. Charisma is a form of interpersonal attraction, and is an attribute found in leaders. This trait allows leaders to be persuasive based on trust and acceptance. Charismatic leaders tend to be self-confident. Transformational and charismatic leaders may exist in all cultures; however, the types of behaviors exhibited by these leaders may differ across cultures.
3. Describe the differences between autocratic and democratic work environments. How do they differ from a laissez-faire workplace?
Autocratic and democratic are usually easy for students to differentiate. Autocratic leaders are typically forceful personalities that are rigid with rule enforcement. In contrast, democratic leaders appreciate collaboration, and interact frequently with followers. Laissez-faire leaders abdicate responsibility and their indifference forces others into ambiguous situations.
4. Define initiating structure and consideration as leader behaviors. How do they compare with P-oriented behavior and M-oriented behavior?
Initiating structure is a task-oriented approach, similar to the P-oriented style. Consideration measurement matches more closely with the M-oriented behavior in that the work environment and individuals are the primary concerns of the leader.
5. Describe the organization man manager, authority-obedience manager, country club manager, team manager, and impoverished manager.
The organization-man manager balances getting work done and maintaining morale. The authority-obedience manager emphasizes production. The country club manager focuses on the needs of people. The team manager emphasizes work accomplishment through committed people. The impoverished manager uses a laissez-faire style of management.
6. How does the LPC scale measure leadership style? What are the three dimensions of the leader’s situation?
The LPC scale measures leadership style by asking leaders to describe the person with whom they have the most difficulty getting the job done. The three situational dimensions are task structure, position power, and leader-member relations.
7. Describe the alternative decision strategies used by a leader in the Vroom-Yetton-Jago normative decision theory.
In the AI form, the managers makes the decision alone; in the AII form, the manager seeks information from employees or peers and then makes the decision; in the CI form, the manager explains the problem to appropriate peers or employees, one-on-one, and then makes the decision; in the CII form, the manager explains the problem to employees or peers as a group and then makes the decision; in the G form, the manager explains the problem to employees or peers as a group and the group makes the decision.
8. Compare House’s path-goal theory of leadership with the situational leadership model.
Both are Type IV theories of leadership that examine specific leader behaviors that are most effective in specific situations. Both propose four similar leadership styles (Path-Goal: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented; Situational: telling, selling, participating, and delegating). While Path-Goal theory examines characteristics of both the followers and the work environment as situational characteristics, the situational leadership model only examines the maturity level of followers as a situational characteristic.
9. Describe alienated followers, sheep, yes people, survivors, and effective followers.
Alienated followers think independently, but are passive; sheep do not think independently and are passive; yes people do not think independently and are active in their behavior; survivors are low-risk followers and the least disruptive; and effective followers practice self-management, are committed to the organization; are not self-centered, invest in their competence, and are courageous, honest, and credible.
1. Do you (or would you want to) work in an autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire work environment? What might be the advantages of each work environment? The disadvantages?
The logical answer for students to make is the preference for the democratic environment. However, there are advantages to the autocratic and laissez-faire environments. Self-directed individuals might find it challenging to be left alone in a laissez-faire environment, if they could ultimately be responsible, and receive credit for their ideas. Individuals preferring a high degree of direction might prefer the autocratic environment, or someone wanting to learn a great deal quickly might value an autocratic environment for a short time.
2. Is your supervisor or professor someone who is high in concern for production? High in concern for people? What is his or her Managerial Grid style?
It is interesting to have the students pool their responses regarding your managerial grid style and have them count, and put the #s in the grid on the board. You might want to do this on a day you are feeling very secure.
3. What decision strategies does your supervisor use to make decisions? Are they consistent or inconsistent with the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model?
Students without work experience may wish to use a leader of an organization that they are affiliated with. It is probably worth mentioning to students that extrapolating from one incident is a dangerous approach, and very often inaccurate. The appropriate style depends on situational factors such as time quality, commitment, and information available.
4. Discuss the similarities and differences between effective leadership and dynamic followership. Are you dynamic?
Both carry characteristics of responsibility and self-management. Students might want to contrast the difference between when they have been a dynamic follower, and in what situations they have not been dynamic?
5. Describe the relationship you have with your supervisor or professor. What is the best part of the relationship? The worst part? What could you do to make the relationship better?
Many students have difficulty staying a dynamic follower, because it is easier to allow the leader to become autocratic than for us to stay a dynamic follower.
6. Who is the leader you admire the most? Write a description of this person including his or her characteristics and attributes that you admire. Note any aspects of this leader or his or her behavior that you find less than wholly admirable.
This question could serve as a good introduction to the material in the chapter. As each theory of leadership is discussed references could be made back to characteristics and attributes that students identified in their most admired leaders.
7. Refresh yourself on the distinction between leaders (also called transformational leaders) and managers (also called transactional leaders) in the text. Then read about four contemporary business leaders. Prepare a brief summary of each and classify them as leaders or managers.
In this assignment, it is important that students tie specific examples of the leaders’ behaviors and characteristics to specific characteristics of leaders and managers.
8. Interview a supervisor or manager about the best follower the supervisor or manager has worked with. Ask questions about the characteristics and behaviors that made this person such a good follower. Note in particular how this follower responds to change. Be prepared to present your interview results in class.
Compare and contrast the responses of different supervisors and managers regarding their best followers. Students could be challenged to consider whether or not they, personally, exhibit these characteristics in work and/or school settings.
1. Is it ethical for leaders to tell followers unilaterally what to do without asking their opinions or getting any input from them?
Some would counter that it is ethical to take responsibility for actions, rather than to delegate the responsibility to others. The example that comes to mind is the situation where the Japanese CEO resigned because of embarrassment related to a product. In some high profile examples in the U.S., we have instances where no one takes responsibility for actions. This question indicates an approach for proactive advice from followers, rather than an autocratic leadership approach.
2. Is it acceptable for a leader to take credit for the work of followers for whom he or she has responsibility?
Most students will relate that they know it happens frequently. However, this is a form of deceit.
3. If a leader is using a delegating leadership style and big problems develop in the team's work, is the leader still responsible for what happens?
Yes, legally and by lines of responsibility. Legal cases often cite both the immediate supervisor as well as the stakeholders of the company in wrongful acts. Delegating does not relieve one of responsibility.
4. If a follower disagrees with the supervisor's directions, is the follower obligated to follow those directions anyway? Or is the follower obligated to be disobedient while adhering to a moral principle?
The first question and the second question are very different. The first asks only if there is a disagreement, and does not mention a moral or ethical problem. Authority mandates that we fulfill our responsibilities. However, we do not have to follow acts that we view as immoral.
5. What should you do if your supervisor acts in an unethical or illegal manner? Talk with the supervisor? Immediately report the action to the company's ethics committee?
Problem reporting is increasing in organizations because many organizational members have been frustrated with ethics violations. If an employee is fearful of reprisal, there should be a reporting procedure to bring the issue to a larger segment outside the immediate working department. Most of the time, if the employee is convinced that the supervisor is acting with knowledge of the wrongful act, it is better for the individual to bypass the supervisor. An issue of importance is whether there are other individuals involved in the situation. Most often, problem reporting policies should encourage anonymity when there are events and situations, rather than personality disagreements.
11.1 HOW DOES YOUR SUPERVISOR LEAD?
This would be a good challenge to have students complete before discussing P and M-orientations to leadership so that they have a personal experience to relate to the text material.
11.2 ARE YOU AN EFFECTIVE FOLLOWER?
Students who do not fall into the category of an effective follower may want to consider the implications of this for the type of job they might choose. They may also want to consider specific steps they could take to become a more effective follower.
This instrument measures Hofstede’s four traditional dimensions of national culture – uncertainty avoidance, individualism, power distance, and masculinity. It also measures a fifth dimension, paternalism. “The paternalism scale includes items that assess the appropriateness of managers taking a personal interest in workers’ lives, providing for workers’ personal needs, and generally taking care of workers.”1
The following shows which items should go with which scales:
1-5 Uncertainty avoidance
6-11 Individualism
12-17 Power Distance
18-24 Paternalism
25-29 Masculinity
This instrument has no scoring mechanism. There are two ways to evaluate the results:
Then write these means on the board and discuss the relevance of the variability of the scores.
1Adapted from Peter Dorfman, Advances in International Comparative Management, vol. 3, pg. 127-150. Copyright 1988 by JAI Press Inc. Used with permission. D. Marcic and S. M. Puffer, “Dimensions of National Culture and Effective Leadership Patterns: Hofstede Revisited,” Management International (Minneapolis/St. Paul, West Publishing, 1994): 10-15.
Instructor's Notes:
Students do not have to have been in an authority position to answer the leadership questionnaire. Be sure to mention to students that lack of experience might, however, influence their scores. One of the more interesting discussions surrounding this survey is to ask students that score high on the people-oriented to change their style.
Instructor's Notes:
One important way to instill the difficulties of leadership is to provide students with the opportunity to fulfill a "locker room talk" classroom activity. Up to three students sign up for one of the topics provided, with the understanding that they will deliver a one to two minute talk on the topic.
For each topic, three students could make presentations. Students are asked to select a topic, and sign up for a particular time, within a two week time frame. Students are free to select the organizational scenario to which their speech will pertain. Talks should last 1 to 2 minutes each. It is helpful to have a timekeeper signal the end of each 2-minute speaking period. Before the "clock begins", each student is asked to provide a brief description of the scenario selected. The audience plays the role called for by the day's topic. After each set of 3 presentations (for a class of 36), there is a brief discussion about the leadership style and presentation.
To ensure useful feedback, 3 rules might be helpful: (1) Do not allow the day's speakers to comment during the critique period. This prevents defensive reactions and excuse making. (2) Make sure all speakers receive some feedback. Although one speaker may overshadow others, all should receive critical commentary. (3) Make sure speakers learn at least one strength and one weakness of their performance.
Students with limited experience, unfortunately, sometimes see the exercise as primarily a speech-making effort. They should be encouraged to see it in its broader context.
Richard G. Linowes, "Filling a Gap in Management Education: Giving Leadership Talks in the Classroom", Journal of Management Education, Vol. 16, (1), February 1992, 6-24.
1. Taking charge of an established group
The speaker is a manager now newly assigned to a group that has worked together under other managers for some time.
2. Announcing a new project
The speaker is announcing a new undertaking to members of his or her department and is calling on all to rally behind the effort.
3. Calling for better customer service
The speaker is motivating all employees to be attentive and responsive to the customer.
4. Calling for excellence and high-quality work
The speaker is motivating all employees to perform their jobs with a commitment to meeting the highest possible standards.
5. Announcing the need for cost reductions
The speaker is requesting that everyone look for ways to cut expenditures and immediately begin slashing spending.
6. Commending for a job well done
The speaker is motivating all employees to perform their jobs with a commitment to meeting the highest possible standards.
7. Reprimanding unacceptable behavior
The speaker is calling to task certain individuals who have failed to perform up to required levels.
8. Calming a frightened group of people
The speaker is endeavoring to restore peace and confidence to those who now panic in the face of distressing business developments.
9. Addressing a challenging opposition
The speaker is presenting some heartfelt belief to a critical, even hostile, audience.
10. Mediating opposing parties
The speaker is calling for reconciliation between two groups bitterly opposed on some key issue.
11. Taking responsibility for error
The speaker is the figurehead spokesman for an institution that has produced some unfortunate result affecting the audience.
Lessons From Each Leadership Topic
Suggested issues to be raised when discussing each leadership talk topic:
1. Taking Charge of an Established Group
This talk is the icebreaker, in which students first appreciate the pain and value of class feedback. The audience looks for openness and confidence in their new leader. They respond well to signs of a team orientation and a healthy respect for their accumulated knowledge and experience. Authoritarian introductions may work, but not without associated risks and down-the-road costs. New leaders must be aware that in some settings a few individuals may feel resentment that they were not given the leadership position; such situations require special sensitivity.
2. Announcing a New Project
This talk is a leader's declaration of group responsibility for a new endeavor. The audience looks for an upbeat, enthusiastic introduction to the project, presented with the leader's assurances that the undertaking is both important and feasible. Acknowledging the group's past achievements, the leader may expect the project to be challenging, demanding the best work from each and every individual on the team.
3. Calling for Better Customer Service
This talk is the first of a series of admonitions aimed at steering the group in a direction of possible major strategic importance. Describing the current negative situation - stemming typically from the increased competition, lax performance standards, or more demanding customers - the leader calls for change. Public finger pointing for past mistakes is usually not effective, but illustrative behaviors help make the point. Expressing understanding and empathy for the strains of customer contact helps build rapport with the audience. Looking forward, the leader may set some targets and call for renewed individual and group accountability. He or she may solicit new ideas for improving service and express confidence that the team can bring about the desired turnaround.
4. Calling for Excellence and High-Quality Work
This talk is another effort to steer the group in a direction of possible strategic import, focusing attention on the quality of people's work. At some point in time, most groups require some such improvements, whether the deficiencies reflect the actions of a few individuals or the group as a whole. The discussion might focus on the importance of quality work, the need for renewed commitment to high standards, and a reiteration of personal and group accountability. The audience welcomes a leader's openness to new ideas and expressed confidence that the group can institute all needed changes.
5. Announcing the Need for Cost Reductions
Although this talk also steers the group in a direction of possible strategic importance, it expresses a theme that is important to every budget-conscious organization. Some historical perspective on creeping costs or eroding profits is usually helpful, as well as some indication of specific budget items that have now become excessive. Key discussion points include the importance of the matter at hand, the value of setting targets, and the need for personal and/or group accountability. Many students addressing this topic present an ultimatum, raising the possibility of job dismissals or layoffs. People should understand the positive and negative cultural implications of such approaches. Illustrations drawn from real work experience of participants are welcome here.
6. Commending for a Job Well Done
This talk represents a joyous occasion for speaking to a group of people, perhaps insufficiently practiced in many organizations. The audience appreciates the leader who will take time out to celebrate their accomplishments. Such talks provide public acknowledgment of group efforts, and they recognize and thank those who have played key roles at work. Missed or fumbled opportunities for uttering praise can breed resentment and a we-versus-they mentality.
Many students are too cavalier in rushing to offer financial rewards for good work; they should understand that most organizations provide very limited opportunities for sizable bonuses and that generous bonus schemes often carry undesirable consequences (stirring up possible resentments: for example, is it equitable? Will it be available next year now that people expect it?).
Finally, the instructor may use this topic to comment on the value of nonverbal communication: During the discussion period, challenge someone to come forward to commend the group for a job well done without using any words.
7. Reprimanding Unacceptable Behavior
This talk is the flip side of a commendation, for here the objective is to correct the group's wrongdoing, although poor quality work or excessive costs may trigger such a speech, even more insightful are those occasions when the leader calls for an end to unethical or unsportsmanlike behavior. It is the behavior that is unacceptable, not the people - as long as they correct their ways. The effective speaker is very clear and very firm, explaining exactly what is unacceptable and why it is so. He or she then sets a clear standard and describes the consequences of any continued wrongdoing. The audience responds well to the leader who speaks with true conviction and appears unwavering. The leader may end on a positive note, emphasizing the important of moving forward to tackle the work that they must accomplish together.
8. Calming a Frightened Group of People
This talk begins the focus on the more emotional side of organizational life, where the leader plays a key role in stemming people's fears while holding the group together. The audience looks to the leader's assurances of personal resolve, and if possible, personal control over the situation at hand. They appreciate the leader's understanding and sense of concern for them as people, and they welcome a personal pledge of continued openness and support. Interesting scenarios selected for this topic include sudden financial loss, corporate takeovers, terrorist threats, and even earthquakes.
9. Addressing a Challenging Opposition
This talk, the second focusing on emotional issues, provides the forum for exploring the fundamental role of commitment in the demonstration of true leadership. Here the leader presents some heartfelt message to a hostile audience, demonstrating a show of courage and personal resolve. The experience highlights differences between popularity and effectiveness ("sometimes you've gotta do what you gotta do") and between casual speech and speaking with conviction. Interesting scenarios selected for this topic include labor hostility, environmental opposition, and anti-military demonstrations.
10. Mediating Opposing Parties
This talk is a demonstration of the key role of a leader in forging a reunification of opposing groups within an organization. Reminding the group of their shared superordinate goals and common vision, the leader shakes them from their provincial concerns, instills in them a spirit of compromise, and renews their common pursuit of shared commitments. The audience responds favorably to the leader who expresses understanding of each opposing viewpoint while acknowledging each viewpoint's legitimacy. Effective speakers also sometimes pinpoint a deadline for moving forward, demanding finality in the resolution of the dispute.
11. Taking Responsibility for Error
This talk presents the leader with the difficult task of admitting error to external groups for organizational misdeeds, oversights, or alleged violations of the public trust. The leader here is the symbol of institutional identity and continuity. As spokesperson to the outside world, the leader must work to restore trust in the organization, its values, and its intended contributions to society. The audience responds favorably to announcements that are sincere, that demonstrate the organization's willingness to take responsibility for the past, and that state specific action plans for responsible behavior in the future.
12. Petitioning for Special Allowances
This talk illustrates the leader's role in representing the organization to external bodies that exercise some degree of control over its activities. As spokesperson for the institution, the leader stands for its mission and values and now seeks to win the hearts and minds of those in control of some critical levers affecting the organization's destiny, be they financial, legal, regulatory, or resource related.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained from:
Marcic, Dorothy & Seltzer, Joe. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 5th Ed.
South Western College Publishing Company, 1998.
The President’s Decision: A Role-Play. p. 168-171. Time: 50 minutes.
Purpose: To explore the effects of different types of leadership styles on group members.
Path-Goal Leadership. p. 154-162. Time: 45 minutes per round.
Purpose: To determine what leadership styles are most effective with different subordinates.
ROLE PLAYS
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this instructor's manual.
Source: http://www.swcollege.com/management/nelson-quick/instructor/uob1e/nqimch11.doc
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