This is the first of two chapters on motivation and performance. This chapter addresses the early content theories of motivation that are related to the internal factors that explain behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McGregor's assumptions are discussed and compared. Herzberg's two factor theory of hygiene factors and motivators is discussed in detail, followed by McClelland's need theory. Process theories are also included in this chapter in relationship to equity theory, social exchange theory, and expectancy theory.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define motivation.
2. Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
3. Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4. Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5. Describe how inequity influences individual motivation and behavior.
6. Explain seven different strategies for resolving inequity.
7. Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8. Describe cultural differences in motivation.
The following key terms are introduced in Chapter 5.
motivation
psychoanalysis
self-interest
need hierarchy
Theory X
Theory Y
motivation factor
hygiene factor
need for achievement
need for power
need for affiliation
inequity
equity sensitive
benevolent
entitled
valence
expectancy
instrumentality
moral maturity
II. MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Motivation theories attempt to explain and predict observable behavior. Motivation theories may be classified as internal, process, or external theories. This is one of the most complex topics in organizational behavior because of the number of variables that affect motivation.
A. Internal Needs
Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines smaller portions of the larger theories. Writers have looked for internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation which would relate to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant Ethic was related to the concept of working hard in order to secure a place in heaven.
B. External Incentives
Early organizational scholars made economic assumptions about human motivation and assumed that people were motivated by self-interest and economic gain. The Hawthorne studies confirmed the beneficial effects of pay incentives on productivity but also found that social and interpersonal motives in behavior were important.
III. EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Early theories of motivation typically took one of two perspectives. The first perspective was that people acted out of self-interest for material gain. The second perspective suggested that people act in ways that satisfy their emotional needs.
A. Adam Smith, Economics, and Frederick Taylor
Adam Smith's basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest for economic gain. Therefore, employees will be most productive when motivated by self-interest. Self-interest is the best interest and benefit to an individual. Frederick Taylor also believed that the conflict between management and employees was over how to divide profits. These early ideas are in contrast to new theories of motivation.
B. The Hierarchy of Needs
The needs hierarchy divided motivation into five levels of needs to be satisfied. Maslow compared the lower level of this hierarchy to unsatisfied employees, and to reach satisfaction they must progress up the ladder.
C. Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor utilized the basis of the need hierarchy to develop his polarized assumptions that individuals hold. Theory X is the assumption of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower-order needs. Theory Y in contrast, views managing individuals from a higher-order needs relationship. He indicated that individuals in organizations should be treated differently based on whether they are Theory X or Theory Y individuals.
ERG theory represents a reclassification of Maslow's need hierarchy into three levels of needs. Alderfer also developed a regression hypothesis that suggests that individuals will focus on lower-level needs when higher-level needs are unattainable.
IV. MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY
McClelland's need theory focuses on personality. He categorized motives into three manifest needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.
A. Need for Achievement
The need for achievement rests with individuals who seek excellence with difficult and challenging goals. Research indicates that people with high needs for achievement outperform those with moderate or low needs for achievement.
B. Need for Power
The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, influencing others, changing people or events, and making a difference in life. This concept is further delineated by separating the need for social power or personal power. The differences can be illustrated by comparing Mother Teresa of Calcutta and someone that students might consider Machiavellian.
C. Need for Affiliation
The need for affiliation emphasizes the establishment and nurturing of intimate relationships with other people. In contrast, individuals with a high need for autonomy value independence and freedom from constraints. Students will be able to identify the differences between individuals by using an example of telecommuting and by discussing which individual would be more comfortable with this change in organizational interaction.
V. HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
The two-factor theory examines the degree to which individuals are satisfied or dissatisfied at work. Herzberg's theory provided two lists of needs. For example, work conditions related to satisfying psychological needs were determined to be motivation factors. On the other hand, hygiene factor needs were related to dissatisfaction and were caused by discomfort or pain.
A. Motivation Factors
Motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge people to grow, yet the absence of these factors does not lead to dissatisfaction.
B. Hygiene Factors
Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or not sufficient. However, when these are obtained, they are not necessarily motivation factors.
C. Critique of the Two-Factor Theory
Although the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg were more flexible than previous theories, critics still view them as putting too much emphasis on self-interest. History is full of examples of people who are motivated by causes, personal missions, discovery, service, beliefs, and creativity.
VI. SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND EQUITY THEORY
Social exchange theory expresses the balance between efforts and reward in organizations. The individual-organizational exchange relationship addresses the contributions and demands that each party makes in the relationship.
A. Demands and Contributions
1. Demands
Needs form the basis for the expectations or demands placed on organizations by individuals. Organizations express demands on individuals through job expectations, mission statements, and performance feedback.
2. Contributions
Contributions are the basis for satisfying the demands expressed by the other party in the relationship. Individual contributions include potential knowledge, skills, and abilities. Organizational contributions include status, benefits, and income.
B. Adams's Theory of Inequity
Adams developed a theory of social exchange that analyzes inequity in the workplace. Specifically, inequity is the situation in which a person perceives he or
she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving. Individuals calculate an input-outcome ratio for themselves and compare it with an input-outcome ratio for another person. If the ratios are not equivalent, inequity is perceived.
C. The Resolution of Inequity
Individuals seek to resolve inequity because it produces tension. The seven strategies for restoring equity are (1) to alter the person's outcomes, (2) to alter the person's inputs, (3) to alter the comparison other's outcomes, (4) to alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) to change who is used as a comparison other, (6) to rationalize the inequity, and (7) to leave the organizational situation.
D. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
New examinations of inequity have further refined the theory, including three different perspectives regarding equity: benevolent, entitled, and equity sensitive. An equity sensitive individual prefers a ratio that is equal to that of his or her comparison other. The benevolent individual is comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of his or her comparison other. The entitled individual is comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of his or her comparison other. Thus, equity theory works best for those people who are equity sensitive.
VII. EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Expectancy theory is based on the personal perceptions that people desire certain outcomes for behavior, and they believe there is a relationship between effort and performance. Expectancy theory is a cognitive, process theory of motivation. Expectancy theory has three key constructs, which are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence is the value or importance an individual places on a particular reward. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to rewards.
A. Motivational Problems
Motivation problems stem from three basic causes within the expectancy theory framework. These causes are a disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance, a disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards, and lack of desire for the rewards offered.
B. Motivation and Moral Maturity
Expectancy theory is grounded in the concept of self-interest, and does not explain motivations that may be altruistic. Moral maturity is a measure of a person's cognitive moral development that aids in explaining motivation for altruistic pursuits.
C. Cultural Differences in Motivation
In regard to Maslow’s, McClelland’s, Herzberg’s and Vroom’s theories, differences have been found in different cultures’ reactions to motivational techniques.
VIII. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: MANY WAYS TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE
IX. LOOKING BACK: The Intrinsic Motivation of Mission Commitment
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Early economic theories of motivation emphasized extrinsic incentives as the basis for motivation and technology as a force multiplier.
Early psychological theories of motivation emphasized internal needs but did not take into account individual diversity in these needs.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation was the basis for McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work.
According to McClelland, the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are learned needs that differ among cultures.
The two-factor theory found that the presence of motivation factors led to job satisfaction, and the presence of hygiene factors prevented job dissatisfaction.
Social exchange theory holds that people form calculated working relationships and expect fair, equitable, ethical treatment.
Expectancy theory says that effort is the basis for motivation and that people want their effort to lead to performance and rewards.
Theories of motivation are culturally bound and differences occur between nations.
1. Define the terms motivation, needs, and equity.
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Needs are the internal causes of motivation. Equity can be viewed in terms of the individual--organizational exchange. When individuals receive what they believe they deserve based on effort, they perceive equity.
2. How can knowledge of motivation theories help managers?
The workforce is increasingly diverse. Knowledge of motivation theories can help managers use a variety of techniques for motivating employees with a wide range of needs, interests, and abilities.
3. What are the five categories of motivational needs described by Maslow? Give an example of how each can be satisfied.
The needs hierarchy begins with fulfilling physiological needs, such as food and shelter. The second level is a safety and security need that is satisfied by a feeling of safe surroundings, such as a well lit environment in which to work. The third level is the need for love or social relationships which can be met by family and friends. Fourth is the esteem need. Titles for positions in organizations often satisfy the need for self-esteem. The final level is the self-actualizing need, which is the need to achieve one's full potential. This means achieving success in all realms of endeavor.
4. What are the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work? How do they relate to the hierarchy of needs?
Theory X is a skeptical, negative view of individuals and their relationship to tasks and work. Theory Y views the individual as highly motivated and responsible for their actions. Theory X individuals would be concerned with the lower three levels of Maslow's needs, and Theory Y individuals are concerned with the higher-order needs.
5. What three manifest needs does McClelland identify?
McClelland divides needs into need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation. These needs are learned. Individuals and cultures differ in their levels of these needs.
6. How do hygiene and motivational factors differ? What are the implications of the two-factor theory for managers?
Hygiene factors are factors such as supervision, work policies, and working conditions. Hygiene factors lead to dissatisfaction, but not to satisfaction. Motivational factors include a sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Motivational factors may lead to satisfaction. Managers need to realize that both contribute to workers' attitudes toward the job.
7. How is inequity determined by a person in an organization? How can inequity be resolved if it exists?
Individuals in organizations calculate involvements through a concept of social exchange. This intuitive exchange compares the demands versus the contributions of individuals in an environment. A person compares his/her input/outcome ratio to the same ratio for another person. The strategies for remedying an inequitable situation include (1) altering one's outcomes, (2) altering one's inputs, (3) alter the comparison other's outputs, (4) alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) change who is used for comparison, (6) rationalize the inequity, and (7) leave the organizational situation.
8. What are the key concepts in the expectancy theory of motivation?
This theory focuses on the personal perceptions of desired outcomes of behavior, in conjunction with effort and performance. The valence is the value placed on the anticipated reward. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to the rewards.
1. What do you think are the most important motivational needs for the majority of people? Do you think your needs differ from those of most people?
This is similar to the research question that asks what motivates supervisors versus what motivates employees. Most of us think our motives are superior and deeper than the rest of the organizational members. No one wants to be merely normal or average. Most of us may share lower level needs, but there may be differences in the higher level needs.
2. At what level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs are you living? Are you basically satisfied at this level?
One of the difficulties with this question is that we typically move up and down the scale in different phases of our lives, or different surroundings. Students will not grasp this readily.
3. Assume you are leaving your current job to look for employment elsewhere. What will you look for that you do not have now? If you do not have a job, assume you will be looking for one soon. What are be the most important factors that you will seek?
This should relate to where students are on their needs hierarchy. Encourage students to use the terminology of motivational factors that they learned in this chapter. Students may also use equity theory and expectancy theory concepts to explain what they seek in a job.
4. If you were being inequitably paid in your job, which strategy do you think would be the most helpful to you in resolving the inequity? What tactics would you consider using?
Adams's Theory of Inequity is a logical approach to this problem. The resolution of inequity strategy could be to alter the input, to leave the organization, to alter the comparison other's input, or any of the ways of restoring equity. Students can also compare themselves in terms of their preferences for equity, benevolence, or entitlement.
5. Do you believe you can do a better job of working or do a better job of studying than you are currently doing? Do you think you would get more pay and benefits or better grades if you did a better job? Do you care about the rewards (or grades) in your organization (or university)?
The first portion of the question relates to tangible, self-motivated goals. Most students will answer yes to being able to do a better job. Occasionally students are so overloaded that they have assessed the obligations in their lives (work, school, family) and determined that they will have to balance their efforts. The underlying theme is whether all of their current motivation rests in predicable, tangible, outcomes.
6. What important experiences have contributed to your moral and ethical development? Are you working to further your own moral maturity at this time?
This is a difficult, but thought-provoking question, to answer in class. This question is better for a homework review question, and is an excellent question for an essay exam. Students can assess their own level of moral maturity.
7. Prepare a memo describing the two employees you work with who most closely operate according to Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about human nature. Be as specific and detailed in your description as you can, using quotes and/or observational examples.
Students who are not in a work setting could describe other students with whom they have worked closely (e.g., in group projects). During discussion of these memos, it would be interesting to also discuss how managers in each of the work settings dealt with each of these employees.
8. Develop an oral presentation about the most current management practices in employee motivation. Find out what at least four different companies are doing in this area. Be prepared to compare these practices with the theory and research in the chapter.
This is an excellent opportunity for students to learn about motivational programs that are actually being used by companies. During class discussion encourage students to evaluate the effectiveness of these programs based on the theories and research from the chapter.
9. Interview a manager and prepare a memo summarizing the relative importance that the manager places on the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. Include (1) whether these needs have changed over time and (2) what job aspects satisfy these needs.
In class, students can compare the perspectives of the different managers they interviewed. Encourage the students to see if a pattern emerges among the managers regarding the importance of these needs. Discuss why students think there is or is not a pattern.
1. Is it ethical for you to pursue your own needs first at work? Are your needs in conflict with what is fair and equitable for others at work? Do you consider the thoughts and feelings of other people at work?
Students will have examples of inequitable situations. Work-study students typically have comparison stories of jobs where the student is allowed to study on the job. Although some students might state they would like to find these positions, by querying further, they typically relate that they resent this environment.
2. Suppose your company knew what employees wanted at work and was unwilling to spend the money to meet their needs. Do you think this would be unethical?
Organizational supervisors are not obligated to fulfill all of our needs at work, but those that are reasonable, equitable, and necessary. Students can discuss what types of needs organizations can reasonably be expected to meet.
3. Assume you know an employee who is being underpaid because the company believes it can save money and the employee will not complain. Is this unethical? Should you tell the employee about the underpayment condition?
Most positions have a salary range connected with the job. The impression that the company is not paying the salary in order to save money may not be the case. There are equity issues related to experience and education that should be questioned. If the focal employee is aware of the situation, and comfortable with the situation (benevolents) that is their decision. Students should be cautioned not to act without full information.
4. Suppose your company has an employee who has been with the company for a long time and now has health problems that will prevent him or her from being fully productive for at least a year. Should the company attempt to carry this person for that period of time, even though the person will not be able to perform? Should the person's pay and benefits be reduced according to performance?
It is rare when an organization has not anticipated these events. Most benefits packages clearly spell out the requirements of both employer and employee. Most students will not
see this as an entitlement issue, but rather a long term relationship that can and should be continued. The implications for age and ability discrimination can be discussed.
CHALLENGES
This challenge provides an opportunity to discuss the implications for work behavior in organizations due to different orientations to the Protestant Ethic. Also, discuss the different approaches to managing and motivating that might be needed for an employee with a pro-Protestant Ethic score and an employee with a non-Protestant Ethic score.
The perceptions of employees and their supervisors differ considerably in regard to employee motivation. One thousand employees were asked to rank what was important to them. Their rankings of “job reward” factors follows. The rewards are listed from most to least popular.
-interesting work
-full appreciation of work done
-a feeling of being in on things
-job security
-good wages
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-sympathetic help with personal problems
Supervisors’ rankings of the same factors follow, from most valuable to least valuable.
-good wages
-job security
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-interesting work
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-full appreciation of work done
-sympathetic help with personal problems
-a feeling of being in on things
Comparing these results to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation suggests that organizations in the United States more effectively satisfy workers’ basic needs than they satisfy ego needs or self-fulfillment needs. Discuss with students why they think this is the case.
* SOURCE: “Crossed Wires on Employee Motivation.” Training and Development, 49 (1995): 59-60.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
5.1 WHAT DO YOU NEED FROM WORK?
This exercise encourages students to think broadly about what they desire from a work experience. During Step 2 of this exercise (sharing of group results with the class) encourage discussion across groups regarding similarities and differences in ratings that might have occurred. In particular, have students consider why differences in ratings exist (i.e., because of differences in length of work experience, type of work experience, etc.). Discussion could also center around organizations’ effectiveness at meeting these needs (and why they are or are not effective).
WHAT TO DO
This exercise presents students with a true-to-life illustration of equity theory. Discussion may focus on attributions for the inequity stemming from factors such as gender or parental status. Factors such as external labor market conditions which also may contribute to pay inequity may be discused.
Alternative Experiential Exercise
Motivation: Three Incidents
Instructor's Notes:
Students are provided three incidents with 5 choices of actions. For each of the following incidents, students are asked to determine whether the individuals will be motivated to behave as desired. This exercise takes approximately thirty minute of class time, with groups of 4-6 in each group. The first example is very quick, and students believe they have motivation theory "wrapped up.” The second example gets more complicated, and by the third example, most of them miss the issues. Expectancy theory, job characteristics model, and effort-performance relationship are all relevant for these examples.
Sports section reports that two of the major state university coaches are recruiting him.
A. Has nothing additional for motivation. Walter already knows this.
B. This isn't Walter's valence; probably knows this as well.
C. This answer does not increase valence for THIS school.
D. Best answer; This approach would be unique to this school and deals with Walter's needs.
E. Doesn't deal with the problem.
II. Joyce's sales are instrumental to incentive bonus, therefore there is high valence for Joyce.
A. This approach is useful only if you need to build effort to performance expectancy.
B. She knows this already.
C. Goal is high valence, not necessarily the answer.
D. Best answer. Use if problem-solving or ability is the issue. Looks like a "know-how" problem.
E. Apparently, she doesn't know how to improve.
III.E. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.
Very few students select E because they believe we are always to DO SOMETHING. Many students pick up on the issues of the U.S. in another country. The key to this answer is that none of the previous choices, A-D provide anything in motivation theory that has not already been provided. This is wasted effort to duplicate the same approaches.
Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville
For each of the following incidents, determine whether the individuals will be motivated to behave as desired. Then select the appropriate managerial action from those listed.
I. Frank Edwards is head basketball coach at a small regional state university, a campus of the state's main university system. He has just had a visit with Walter Johnson, a local high school athlete who is clearly one of the state's blue chip basketball prospects. Frank desperately needs a player of Walter's potential to turn his mediocre team around, but he realizes that it won't be easy to sign him. He is confident that he made it clear to Walter that there is a scholarship available for Walter if he wants it. He also knows that Walter needs a scholarship to be able to go to college. However, an article in the Sunday Sports section reports that two of the major state university coaches (larger schools upstate, with nationally known basketball programs) intend to actively recruit Walter, also. Coach Edwards should take which of the following actions?
A: Send Walter a written and notarized offer of the scholarship.
B: Write Walter's parents, stressing that the scholarship will cover all of his tuition, room and board, and book expenses.
C: Write a letter to Walter stressing to him the value of a college education.
D: Talk to Walter again, stressing the likelihood that he would make the starting five in his Freshman year.
E: Do nothing. Walter will probably sign with him anyway.
II. Joyce, a recent College of Business graduate, has been working several months as a sales person for a small manufacturer of computers and word processors. She is one of two sales people working a large metropolitan area. Her sales manager, Eric Kurtz, is concerned about her performance, however. He is aware that Joyce wants very much to have high sales in order to participate in the company's generous incentive bonus plan. She has expressed her satisfaction with the way the plan operates, and was clearly in agreement that there is a booming demand for computers and word processors in the market area. He is puzzled, therefore, by her poor performance. He should take which of the following actions?
A. Post sales performance figures in the office so that everyone can see how the sales persons are doing.
B. Have a talk with Joyce, stressing the details of how she can benefit financially from increased sales.
C. Tell Joyce that unless she begins to reach her quota within the next three months, she will be terminated from employment.
D. Ask Joyce to accompany him on sales calls to several new customers.
E. Do nothing. Her performance should soon be improving.
III. Motumba is a small African nation with rich deposits of several rare metals. Tall, forbidding mountains to the North and West make it impossible to ship out ore in these directions. Kobutsu, the country bordering on their East has a modern deep-water port city, and an extensive rail network, which make it a logical alternative route for shipping out the ore. However, due to a long-running conflict between the heads of state of the two countries, Kobutsu has not allowed Motumban ore to be transported to and through its port, and Motumba has been forced to settle for sending out small quantities through the neighboring country to the south via a long route of antiquated rail facilities. Recently, however, the government of Kobutsu changed, with a new head of state coming to power who had a reputation of being friendly toward the Motumbans and cognizant of the potential benefits to Kobutsu of serving as a transportation route for their ore. As U.S. Department of State envoy to that area, your action should be:
A. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State, stressing the potential benefits of being a transportation link for Motumban ore.
B. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State and point out the opportunity present for a new constructive relationship with Kobutsu.
C. Send a letter to the Kobutsun Minister of Commerce stressing the likelihood of being able to work out a trade agreement with Motumba.
D. Invite both heads of State to the U.S., and tell both of them that the U.S. will cut off all economic aid to them if they do not begin to cooperate.
E. Do nothing. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.
Exercise Learning Objectives:
Highlight the different things that create a motivational environment for people.
Show that people want to be recognized for different things.
Exercise Overview:
1. Students should know their temperament types (SJ, SP, NF, or NT).
2. Students will be formed into like-temperament groups.
3. Students will develop a list of recent scientific breakthroughs.
4. After development, groups will be reformed into dissimilar types (dyads or triads) and compare ideas.
5. The instructor should know what each temperament would find useful and fascinating about a scientific breakthrough.
Exercise Description:
Form like-temperament groups. The instructor should have each group prepare a list of recent scientific breakthroughs that have happened within the next 10 years. Have the students use a blackboard or a large piece of flip chart paper to capture the list. Have each group pick the top 3 to 5 of these breakthroughs. Now have each group develop and be prepared to present the rationale for their choices. After an appropriate time, have each group explain to the class why they chose these breakthroughs and why they important. If time is short, have each group pick the most important breakthrough. The instructor should ask each group, "If you were making any of the breakthroughs, tell us how you would like to be recognized for your work--what would really turn you on."
What should the instructor expect?
Each temperament group will develop lists which have some overlap. The key is that each group will view them differently. We would expect to see two of the temperaments to use "present" orientation (SJ and SP) and two groups to be more "future" oriented (NF and NT).
In the second phase, each temperament would like to be rewarded differently. For example, SPs like to be rewarded for their cunning and skill, SJs for doing the arduous and tedious work of keeping things together and on track, NFs like to be rewarded for bring harmony and a sense of self-worth to everyone, and NTs like to be rewarded for their intellectual prowess and systematic, analytical thinking.
Instructor's Summary:
The SJ temperament reflects a strong desire for orderliness, dependability, and realistic assessments. Additionally they admire service, belonging to and supporting organizations, and organizational stability. Some of the pitfalls for one with an SJ preference are: unwillingness to change, deciding too quickly, making the rule all important, and becoming too impatient when schedules are not rigidly adhere to. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing their steadfastness and loyalty, giving them more responsibility, and appreciating (in front of their peers) their tireless "small" contributions (doing the little things that keep the organization functioning well).
The SP temperament reflects a strong desire for freedom, action, and risk-taking. Additionally they admire quick-thinking, negotiating skills, and open-mindedness. Some of the pitfalls for someone who possesses an SP temperament include: becoming too restless with rules and procedures, becoming bored with status quo, not listening to or trying to understand theory or a philosophy, and doing any long range planning. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing them for their cleverness, appreciating their ability to recognize trouble and find a quick way out, appreciating their willingness to take a risk and their ability to usually succeed.
The NF temperament reflects a strong desire to search for meaning and authenticity, to be empathetic, and to establish and maintain close personal contact with others. Additionally, they admire the search for possibilities (especially for people), appreciating people, and organizational investment in people. Some of the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NF temperament include: spending too much time on the needs of others, putting off task accomplishment out of a concern for people, giving objective feedback, and avoiding any situation which may jeopardize harmony. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing them for their people orientation, thanking them for leading a harmonious team, and appreciating their ability to help others manage their careers.
The NT temperament reflects a strong desire to search for change in organizational principles, and to attain competency. Additionally, they admire competence, logic, critical analysis, systems thinking, and those that "take on the system." Some of the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NT temperament include: becoming too critical of self and others, becoming too impersonal, unwillingness to follow through once a project is designed, and becoming very terse in conversation. Ways to motivate these people include: giving them the project design phase without much guidance, appreciating their critical, systems thinking, and appreciating their competency in whatever they tackle.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained from:
Marcic, Dorothy & Seltzer, Joe. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 5th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 1998.
Manifest Needs. p. 69-73. Time: 35 minutes.
Purpose: To examine levels of motivation according to Murray, McClelland, and others.
Expectancy Theory Activity. p. 61-67. Time: 50 minutes.
Purpose: To see how expectancy theory works in practice.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience. West Publishing Company, 1994.
In-Basket Exercise: Initiating and Maintaining Action. p. 61-62.
In-Basket Exercise: Holding Others Accountable. p. 69-72.
Source: http://www.swcollege.com/management/nelson-quick/instructor/uob1e/nqimch05.doc
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