OUTLINE 1:  SOC 101

Examining the Social World: How DO We Know?

 

Lecture Outline         Sociology is the social scientific study of social forces and group life.   It is based
                                    on three assumptions: 

                                               1.   Human beings are social by nature.
                                               2.   Human behavior is influenced by social forces.
                                               3.   Human beings create, maintain, and can change the social forces which
                                                 influence their lives. 

There are multiple ways of describing and explaining human behavior.  All sciences seeks to describe/explain behavior, predict behavior, and influence behavior. 

A.  . Assumptions of All Sciences
The scientific approach is based on the following assumptions:

• There is a real physical and social world that can be studied scientifically
• There is order in the world resulting from causes and effects
• This produces identifiable patterns that can be understood and predicted
• The world is not random, but rather made up of causally related and patterned parts
• Scientific knowledge must be based on measurable phenomena

• Science is rooted in objectivity
• The methods used should not contaminate ones findings
• Personal opinions and biases should be absent from research
• Scientists may not distort their findings to promote their personal views
• Research is conducted in a way that tests whether assumptions support OR disprove what is being tested
• Scientific evidence- facts and information that are confirmed through systematic testing that uses the five senses

 

B.  How sociologists study the social world:  Sociologists use the scientific method in their
research.  In order for research to be considered scientific, it must meet four criteria:

1  based on observation

2  explain the relationships among variables

                                                                               3  publish the researcher’s methodology

                                                                         4  be able to be reproduced with the same results

 

 

In the Social Sciences, variables that are being studied are ABSTRACT.  When variables are abstract, they need to be defined in ways that can be observed and measured. 

• Operationalize definitions of variables
• Operational definitions- determining exactly how to measure concepts

AN OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF A AN ABSTRACT VARIABLE SPECIFIES THE OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS THAT INDICATE THE EXISTENCE OF THE ABSTRACT VARIABLE.

• Variables- concepts or ideas that vary in frequency of occurrence across people, times, or places
• Must be measurable
• Hypotheses predict the relationship between two or more variables and explain how those variables are related
• Ways that two concepts can be related
• Correlation- a change in one variable is associated with a change in the other.  The relationship between variables that are correlated are tendencies.  They do not occur in all cases.  Correlations can be positive + (both variables tend to change in the same direction) or negative – (variables tend to change in opposite directions)
• Cause and effect relationship- A change in the independent variable results in a change in the dependent variable
• Independent variable- the cause of the change; this variable always occurs before the
• Dependent variable- the variable that changes as the independent variable is changed

•  Research methods in Sociology:  The value of the study findings depends upon the quality of the data collected
• The survey method- gathers information directly about how people think or feel or what they do
• Interview- conducted by directly talking to respondents in person or by phone
• Questionnaire- questions that respondents answer in writing

*Interviews are more costly and time   consuming than questionnaires, but allow for more depth

 

 

*Sampling:  Selecting a sample- a small, manageable group of people systematically chosen to represent a larger group; should look like the population being studied as closely as possible

a.    Representative sample- accurately reflects the group being studied; the
same proportion of important variables exists in the sample as in the
population.  Results of the study can be generalized- applied to the larger
population 

b. Random sample- every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study; results can be generalized to the population being studied.

• Convenient sample- those included in the study are selected on the basis of convenience to the researchers.  The results cannot be generalized to the larger population being studied.  Two separate convenient samples of the same population do not give the same results.

 

     

• Field studies/observational methods- systematic, planned observations of social interaction
• Observation- the systematic viewing and recording of interactions in natural settings
• Participant observation- the researcher participates in the activities of the group being studied.  Counteracts the Hawthorne Effect:  people’s behavior changes when they know they are being watched.

• Controlled experiments- control all variables except the one being studied
• Control group- subjects who are not exposed to the variable the researcher wants to test
• Experimental group- subjects who are exposed to the variable being tested
• Controlled experiments are good because they allow for the best test of cause and effect
• Controlled experiments also have drawbacks
• Cannot be used for many sociological questions that focus on meso- and macro-level social forces
• The laboratory setting may affect participants (research effects)
• Social scientists cannot ethically introduce many variable into the laboratory
• Existing sources- using materials that already exist in a new way or to understand a new pattern; a common way of using data that has already been collected in other studies

 

**Ethical issues in social research

• How will research findings be used? Could they hurt individuals, communities, or nations? In whose interest is the research carried out?
• How can the researcher protect subject confidentiality? Is the risk to subjects worth the anticipated benefits?
•  Do subjects provide informed consent? What does informed consent mean? How much should the researcher reveal to the subject about the study?
•  Will there be any harm to subjects?
•  How much privacy violation is acceptable? How much disclosure of confidential information is acceptable?
• How can results be disseminated to the public to be useful for public policy and everyday life
• Human subjects review boards at most universities and research organizations help protect subjects

  Sociology’s Major Theoretical Perspectives

Theoretical perspective- a basic view of society that helps develop explanations of organized social patterns and the relationships between those patterns; built on certain assumptions.    Can be micro- or macro-level

1              Structural-functional perspective(functionalist theory)- assumes that social structure, culture, and social processes work together to ensure that society runs smoothly and harmoniously

• Society seeks equilibrium.
• functions contribute order/equilibrium
• dysfunctions contribute to chaos
• society is held together by cooperation and mutual benefit; consensus

 

2             Conflict perspective  society is held together by the coercion resulting from the conflicting interests of

               owners and workers. 

1.   Conflict and potential for conflict underlie all
social relations

• Social change is desirable, particularly if it can lead to greater equality but it normally results from revolution
• The existing social order reflects the powerful imposing their values and beliefs on the weaker
•  Inequality and injustice are the sources of conflict
• Society is held together by coercion.
• The interests of the “owners of production” are opposed to the “laborers” necessary for production and vice versa.
• self-interest is the ultimate motivator of behavior
• Social class has a significant influence on

people’s perceptions of reality

3              Symbolic interactionism concerned with how people give meaning to their everyday experiences and how they define and respond to events; emphasizes symbolic communication

1.     People form groups from interacting individuals

• Through interactions we learn what to expect and how to share common understandings through symbols (like language)
• Through symbols, people actively socially constructa meaningful world
• Based on communication, we interpret our interactions with others and create responses based on those interpretations
• Principles of symbolic interactionism
• Human thoughts are shaped by social interaction
• Through interactions, people learn the meanings and symbols that allow them to exercise thought and participate in human action
• People modify the meanings and symbols as they make sense of their situations and events
• Interpreting the situation involves seeing things from more than one perspective, examining possible courses of action, assessing the advantages and disadvantages of each, and then choosing one course of action;
• Patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies

 

4          Globalismno single traditional perspective of social behavior is adequate to explain current realities. 

1.    emphasis on industrialization,
communication, and multi national
corporations

• global stratification influences national

       and group behavior

• global stratification has a significant
• influence on nations’ perception of reality
• national interests set by corporate interest

 

Development of Society:  people come together in groups . . . . .  division of labor . . . .  .  .   specialization . .   .  . . .interdependence . ..  .  .   . . .surplus . .   . leisure . . .  . market expansion . . .   .capital gain

Countries are interdependent based on availability of natural resources and markets for goods and services.   Some countries gain at the expense of others.

Economics – the science of the production distribution and consumption of goods and services by a society.