By Miha Lee

1) What has changed in education over time?
American education sometimes pursue the similarity (uniformity), and at other times the diversity (differentiation). What to teach in the American classrooms has been developed either explicitly and thoughtfully or implicitly and haphazardly. Therefore, the kinds and number of subjects or courses that students should learn or could choose have been varied to meet the demands of each period of time. In addition, the national bodies that played the main role in establishing standards have been changed over time.

In nineteenth century, college admission requirements shaped the content standards and the achievement level that were taught and measured in secondary schools in general, high schools in particular. As a result, in 1892, the Committee of Ten was established by the National Educational Association to make recommendations to improve the curricula of the nation’s high schools. The Committee sought to establish new curricula standards for high schools and to alter the admission standards for colleges and universities. Accordingly, the Committee of Ten made five subjects – English, mathematics, history, science and foreign language- prerequisites for college entrance, and the College Board was formed to hold common college entrance tests which exerted so much influence on the high school curriculum. In sum, the education in the late nineteenth century was all about uniformity for all.  

In the early twentieth century, the CRSE was formed and sought the “tracking” in secondary education emphasizing the need of society. Due to the differentiation, the SAT and that was standardized, content-free examination was created. The standards in this period were those embedded in the commercial textbooks and tests as well as in the major college entrance examinations (the SAT and the ACT). Put simply, this period was about differentiation of educational curricula.

In the late twentieth century, the low achievement of students became national issue. In 1975, the College Board pointed out the decline of SAT scores. In 1983, A Nation at Risk prepared by the National Commission on Excellence in Education criticized the mediocrity and complacency of American education. It called for higher standards for teachers and students, a core curriculum for all, higher standards for high school graduation and college entrance, a longer school day and year, and higher salaries for teachers. Since 1986, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has administered the achievement tests. In 1989 and 1990, President Bush set the national goals of education. In sum, from the 1970s up to today, the goals of education have been excellence in education. The Standards allow uniform high quality of education in the situation of diverse forms of education.

All in all, this is how the National Standards came to be developed from the perspectives of American educational history.

2) What has stayed the same?

The release of the Standards was the culmination of an extensive process of consensus-building about American education based on “the principles of a democratic society.” American education has a long history of standard-setting activity in which two things have been pursued: what American students should know and be able to do, and how well they have learned what was expected of them. Although the efforts to set the standard and its accompanied tests have taken different forms through history, the focus has always been on the kinds and quality of education. Educators and legislators have tried to establish shared norms and expectations in education. They have strived for equal access to a good education for all students in different ways.

3) What is the difference between aptitude and achievement tests? What do they have to do with standards?

Aptitude tests such as intelligence test measure what students are capable of doing, that is, the ability of students to study. The SAT was devised for the purpose of determining a student’s readiness for college-level work because at the time, the differentiation of curricula made uniform college entrance examination impossible. The SAT also helped the College Board avoid the constant criticism that examinations exerted too much influence on the high school curriculum. During the 1940s and 1950s, the College Board claimed that the SAT was intended not to influence standards, but to help colleges identify students who were ready for college studies. It was virtually curriculum free, and thus vocabulary, reasoning skills were of primary importance.

On the other hand, achievement tests measure what students know, that is, the content knowledge that students learned. Advanced Placement tests and other mandated standardized achievement tests assess the quality of education that students received, sort students according to their ability, and place them into appropriate program. These achievement tests defined and supported educational standards because the standards provide the shared norms and expectations for education.

4) How was science education perceived throughout history?

Science education has become the major subject or courses in the standard of curricula for high schools over time.

In the most of nineteenth century, science was not part of college admission requirements. However, in 1892, the Committee of Ten established by the National Educational Association made science two parts of nine subject-matter conferences that considered carefully what the courses of study should consist of and how the subjects should be assessed for college admission. One was physical science including physics, astronomy, and chemistry. The other was natural history including biology, botany, zoology, and physiology. Later the Committee made five subjects – English, mathematics, history, “science”, and foreign language- prerequisites for college entrance. The Committee also recommended one unit of science out of ten total standards units for college entrance requirements. The College Board was formed to hold common college entrance tests. In 1901, the first examination included chemistry, and physics, and in 1902 botany was included.
In the time of CRSE, the tracking curricula system made advanced science courses only for college bound distinct minority students. Also, science was not on the SAT test at the time. In the Post-Sputnik era (from 1965 to 1975), rigorous science standards were demanded. However, it was not for all students but for some elite students.
However, in 1980, a report prepared by Presidents Carter’s request assessed the adequacy of science and engineering education at every level, and warned of scientific illiteracy. Thus, in 1990, Bush’s State of the Union address set the goals of science achievement as being first in the world. In accordance with it, in 1996 the National Science Education Standards was released.

The History of American Educational Standards

Each university had its own admission requirements set by its president and faculty members. The requirements were centered on the classical curriculum such as academic readings of Latin and Greek.

Early (1840s and 1850s): Expansion of public education (common school movement) to accommodate the waves of immigration.

• The need of social cohesion => similarity in the quality of schooling
• The equality of educational opportunity => All children should have access to schools that offer education of similar, high quality.
• The use of identical or similar text books => content standards
• The specification of requirements for high school graduation or college entrance => common vocabulary to gauge student performance
• The use of standardized or comparable achievement tests for promotion or college admission
• The prescription of curriculum patterns
• The professionalization of teacher training, with shared norms and expectations (standards)

College admission requirements shaped the content standards and the achievement level that were taught and measured in secondary schools in general, high schools in particular. Thus, secondary educators promoted uniformity of college education requirements.

Late  
The Committee of Ten was established in 1892 by the National Educational Association to make recommendations to improve the curricula of the nation’s high schools.
Four issues for the Committee

• How to resolve the antagonism between the classical curriculum and the modern academic subjects such as science, history and modern foreign language
• How to promote uniformity in preparing students for college
• How to respond to demands to include practical courses such as manual training
• Whether the high schools should offer different curricula for those who were college bound and those who were not
•  

The Committee sought to establish new curricula standards for high schools and to alter the admission standards for colleges and universities. Thus, it engaged nine subject-matter conferences that considered carefully what the courses of study should consist of and how the subjects should be assessed for college admission, and thereby made five subjects – English, mathematics, history, science, and foreign language- prerequisites for college entrance. It took a firm stand against differentiation between college bound students and unbound students. It was toward a liberal education that believed a curriculum which would prepare all students for a rich and full life.

Consequences or Influences

• The use of “units” (later, Carnegie units) in high schools for a uniform measure for all courses
• The formation of the College Entrance Examination Board

The College (Entrance Examination) Board shaped and enforced voluntary national standards.
They formed “committee of review” to review and revise standards in the different subject areas to establish requirements for the examinations in each subject. The requirements became voluntary national standards in each subject area. In 1901, they held its first examination in the Middle States and Maryland.

Criticism: cramming and testing only memory power

In 1918: The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education (CRSE)

• Formed against college domination in high school education => dominated by educationists
• Diverged from the academic emphasis of the Committee of Ten and the College Board
• Emphasis on utility and social efficiency => preparing youngsters for present and future social and occupational roles
• Support for curricular tracking and a devaluation of liberal education
• Met the need of mass education teaching large members of students from poor and non-English-speaking backgrounds because educator didn’t want to undertake the reformulation of subject matters

 
The Seven cardinal principles as the main objectives of education (the needs for society): Health, command of fundamental processes, worthy home-membership, vacation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, ethical character

In 1926 SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) developed
To provide reliable information for the colleges’ entrance requirements under the circumstance of differentiation caused by the CRSE => content-free examination
With the advancement of technology in standardized measurement from World War I’s intelligence test => standardized, multiple-choice examination
To determine a student’s readiness for college-level work

In 1941, the SAT became the only college entrance examination for IVY leagues because essay examination was canceled due to the World War II.

Consequences or Influences
Content knowledge such as science and history was ignored.
Test-taking skill was emphasized.
Diffused and fragmented curricula

From 1920s to 1960s, mandated standardized achievement testing was conducted to assess the quality of numerous school districts and schools, to sort students according to their ability, and to place them into appropriate program.

Criticism:

• Used to allocate students to different kinds of educational opportunities, in keeping with the curricula differentiation
• Don’t meet the need to set states’ or district’ own explicit academic standards

In 1960s, the Post-Sputnik Era, the educational standards were raised in science, mathematics and foreign language courses to identify talent and improve the education of elite students.

In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act reinforced standardized achievement testing.

From 1965 to 1975, college entrance requirements were markedly lower, and many students had shifted from the academic curriculum to nonacademic tracks. The standards in this period were those embedded in the commercial textbooks and tests as well as in the major college entrance examinations (the SAT and the ACT).

In 1975, the College Board pointed out the decline of SAT scores. The low achievement of students became national issue.

In 1981, a special task force of Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) issued “the Need for Quality.” It demanded to challenge all students to attain higher levels of achievement. It also called for higher standards for teachers and students and a more rigorous high school curriculum. 

In 1983, A Nation at Risk prepared by the National Commission on Excellence in Education criticized the mediocrity and complacency of American education. It called for higher standards for teachers and students, a core curriculum for all, higher standards for high school graduation and college entrance, a longer school day and year, and higher salaries for teachers.

In 1986, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) established benchmarks to gauge students’ achievement and administered the first test in eight southern stated. In 1987, an expansion of NAEP was proposed to include state-by-state.

In 1989, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) published national standards to transform mathematics education for all students.

In 1990, Bush Administration set the national goals of education. From them, two things gave momentum to the development of the National Standards and the National Assessments.

• American students will leave grades four, eight, and twelve having demonstrated competency in challenging subject matter including English, mathematics, science, history, and geography; and every school in America will ensure that all students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment in our modern economy.
• U.S. students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement.