Viruses

Chapter 19 virus

Summary of Chapter 19, BIOLOGY, 12TH ED Campbell, by J.B. Reece et al. 2014.

I. VIRUSES

Viruses are subcellular particles that cannot metabolize on their own and are not considered to be truly living organisms.

Viruses consist of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat and, sin some cases, a membranous envelope. A virus is a genome enclosed in a protective coat.

Viruses are infectious agents and are not assigned to any of the six kingdoms.

Viruses are organized associations of macromolecules

1. Viral genomes, capsids and envelopes.

• Nucleic acid, DNA or RNA, which carries the blueprint for the replication of progeny viruses.
• The genomes may consist of a double stranded DNA, a single stranded DNA, a double stranded RNA or a single stranded RNA.
• The smallest virus has only four genes; the largest viruses have several hundreds.
• Contained within a protective shell of protein units called the capsid.
• The capsid could be made of a single type of protein or of several hundred types of proteins.
• The capsids may have a variety of shapes: rod shaped, polyhedral, spherical, etc.
• Some viruses have viral envelopes, membranes that cover the capsid and help them to infect their hosts.
• Viral envelopes are derived from the host cell and it contains host cell phospholipids and membrane proteins.

Viruses cannot replicate outside of a living cell.

Once it has invaded a cell it is able to direct the host cell machinery to synthesize new intact infectious virus particles (virions).

Because viruses are non-motile, they are entirely dependent on external physical factors for chance movement and spread to infect other susceptible cells.

Viruses are between 20 and 300 nanometers long.

The genome ( DNA or RNA) codes for the few proteins necessary for replication.

• Some proteins are functional, e.g. nucleic acid polymerases,
• and some are structural, i.e. they become incorporated and form part of the virion.

Phages or bacteriophages are viruses that attack bacteria cells.

Phages have the most complex capsids. They have a polyhedral head, a tail piece and fibers for attachment to the bacterium.

Classification:

1. Viruses are broadly classified primarily upon the type of genomic nucleic acid, e.g. DNA or RNA ,

2. Then further by the number of strands of nucleic acid (e.g. double-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA or single-stranded RNA.

3. Retroviruses are a special category of RNA viruses that require reverse transcription of their RNA to DNA and then integration of that DNA into the host cell genome before replication and transcription can take place. They carry a reverse transcriptase enzyme as part of the virion.

Viruses infect humans, animals, plants and other organisms.

In humans, they are responsible for chickenpox, mononucleosis, herpes, mumps, warts, influenza, hepatitis, AIDS, certain types of cancer, etc.

2. VIRUSES REPLICATE ONLY IN HOST CELLS - REPRODUCTION

Viruses lack enzymes, ribosomes and other equipment for making proteins.

Each type of virus can infect only a limited range of host cells called its host range.

The host specificity depends on the recognition system of the virus for the identification of the host cell.

A virus reproductive cycle could be lytic or temperate.

A. Lytic cycle.

1. Attachment to the host cell using its tail fibers to stick to specific receptor sites on the host's membrane.

2. Penetration of the nucleic acid into the cytoplasm of the cell.

3. Bacterial DNA is destroyed; replication of viral macromolecules.

4. Cell's metabolism is directed by the viral genome.

5. Assembly of the newly synthesized viral components (viral nucleotides, proteins, etc).

6. Release of the new viruses by destroying the host cell with lytic enzymes, lysozymes.

B. Temperate or lysogenic cycle.

The phage injects the DNA into the host cell.

The viral DNA is incorporated into the hosts DNA and the viral genome is replicated along with DNA of the host cell. This viral DNA is now known as a prophage.

When the bacterium divides, the daughter cells receive the inserted viral DNA.

Bacterial cells carrying prophages are called lysogenic cells.

Lysogenic cells may exhibit new properties.

The virulence of bacteria that causes diphtheria, botulism and scarlet fever is due to prophage genes that make the bacteria produce toxins.

Occasionally a prophage exits the bacterial chromosome, and initiates a lytic cycle.

C. Animal viruses

Animal viruses often have an envelope made from the host's cell membrane, which allows them to enter or exit the cell.

Retroviruses are a special category of RNA viruses that require reverse transcription of their RNA to DNA and then integration of that DNA into the host cell genome before replication can take place. They carry a reverse transcriptase enzyme as part of the virion.

• HIV, human immunodeficiency virus, is a retrovirus.

Vaccines are harmless variants or derivatives of pathogenic microbes that stimulate the immune system to mount defenses against the actual pathogen.

Effective vaccines have been developed against many viral diseases, e. g. polio, smallpox, mumps, hepatitis, and rubella (German measles).

D. VIRAL DISEASES

Emergent diseases are those that were not known before or that have been absent for at least 20 years.

• Emerging infectious diseases are diseases of infectious origin whose incidence in humans has increased within the past two decades or threatens to increase in the near future.
• Ebola virus, HIV, hantavirus.

Many factors, or combinations of factors, can contribute to disease emergence. Newly emergent infectious diseases may result from...

• changes or evolution of existing organisms;
• known diseases may spread to new geographic areas or new human populations;
• previously unrecognized infections may appear in persons living or working in areas undergoing ecological changes, such as deforestation or reforestation that increase their exposure to insects, animals, or environmental sources that may harbor new or unusual infectious agents.

The great influenza epidemic of 1918 killed between 30 and 40 million people around the globe.

• It probably is the largest loss of life from an individual disease in a single year.

High-density population increases the chance of contamination and infection due to increase contact, pollution and lack of hygiene.

Emerging infections, such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and TB, vividly illustrate that no nation can be complacent regarding human vulnerability to the microorganisms with which we share our environment.

Since the early 1970s, the U.S. public health system has been challenged by many newly identified pathogens and syndromes, such as Lyme disease, Legionnaires' disease, toxic shock syndrome, human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, hepatitis C virus, cryptosporidiosis, and,
most recently, hantavirus.

Examples of Emerging Infectious Diseases, United States, 1993

E. coli O157:H7 disease
Cryptosporidiosis
Coccidioidomycosis
Multidrug-resistant pneumococcal disease
Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections
Influenza A/Beijing/32/92
Hantavirus infections

Examples of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Outside the United States, 1993

Cholera in Latin America
Yellow Fever in Kenya
Vibrio cholerae O139 in Asia
E. coli O157:H7 in South Africa and Swaziland
Rift Valley Fever in Egypt
Multidrug-resistant Shigella dysenteriae in Burundi
Dengue in Costa Rica
Diphtheria in Russia

List of National Institute Allergy Infectious Diseases Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases

Group I—Pathogens Newly Recognized in the Past Two Decades
Acanthamebiasis;
 Australian bat lyssavirus;
Babesia atypical;
Bartonella henselae;
Ehrlichiosis;
Encephalitozoon cuniculi;
Encephalitozoon hellem;
Enterocytozoon bieneusi;
Helicobacter pylori;
Hendra or equine morbilli virus;
Hepatitis C;
Hepatitis E;
Human herpesvirus 8;
Human herpesvirus 6;
Lyme borreliosis;
Parvovirus B19.

Group II—Re-emerging Pathogens
Enterovirus 71; Clostridium difficile;
Mumps virus;
Streptococcus, Group A;Staphylococcus aureus.

Antibiotic and pesticide resistance strains have appeared in many parts of the world.

Natural selection and the ability of many organisms to evolve new forms are responsible for the emergence of many diseases that were under control a few years ago.

Tumor viruses

Tumor viruses insert their DNA in the host cell's DNA triggering cancerous changes through their own or host cell's genes.

The virus responsible for hepatitis B also seems to cause liver cancer in individuals with chronic hepatitis.

Viral genes that directly cause cancer are called oncogenes.

Proto-oncogenes are found in normal cells and produce proteins associated with the cell cycle.

In some cases, the virus transforms the cell by turning on or increasing the expression of the cell's oncogenes.

Plant viruses

Plant viruses cause much damage to agriculture.

Most plant viruses are single stranded RNA viruses.

The viruses may enter the plant through damaged cell wall or could be inherited from a parent during asexual propagation.

Viruses may have evolved from cell fragments containing DNA and that were able to move from one cell to another.

3. VIROIDS AND PRIONS.

1. A viroid consists of a short circular strand of RNA with no protein coat.

They are made of several hundred nucleotides.

Viroids do not encode proteins but can replicate in host plant cell and disrupt the metabolism of the entire plant.

2. Prions are small polypeptide chains consisting of 208 amino acids.

They are abnormal versions of normal brain proteins. When prions contact a similar protein, it may induce the normal protein to adopt an abnormal shape.

A chain reaction will follow until the prions reach a dangerous level causing cellular malfunction and possibly degeneration of the brain.

These particles have been associated to animal and plant diseases.

http://www.kcom.edu/faculty/chamberlain/Website/Lects/PRIONS.HTM