An uncertain peace

AP EH CHAPTER 26 NOTES

I. AN UNCERTAIN PEACE: THE SEARCH FOR SECURITY
A. the peace settlement at the end of WW I had tried to fulfill the 19th Century dream of nationalism by redrawing boundaries and creating new states
1. conflicts over disputed border regions between Germany and Poland, Poland and Lithuania, Poland and Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary, and Italy and Yugoslavia poisoned mutual relations in Eastern Europe for years
2. many Germans viewed the Versailles Peace Treaty as profoundly unfair to Germany, dictated by the allies, and worthy only of total repudiation by a strong Germany
B. Woodrow Wilson recognized that the peace treaties contained unwise provisions that could serve as new causes for conflicts and had placed many of his hopes for the future in the League of Nations
C. the weakness of the League of Nations and the failure of both the United States and Great Britain to honor their promises to form defensive military alliances with France left France embittered and alone
D. in an effort to compensate, France formed a weak alliance system known as the “Little Entente” with 2nd rate military powers such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia
E. The French Policy of Coercion (1919-1924)
1. the French strictly enforced the terms of the Treaty of Versailles on the defeated Germans (including strict collection of war reparations)
2. when Germany failed to pay its war reparations in a manner that was satisfactory to the French, France occupied German industries in the Ruhr Valley 
3. the French occupation of the Ruhr led to a policy of passive resistance by the German government and its resorting to print money to pay war debts (ruined the economy by causing a huge spike in inflation)
a. 4.2 German Marks = $1 US (1914)
b. 130 Billion German Marks = $1 US (November, 1923)
c. 4.2 Trillion German Marks = $1 US (December, 1923)
4. British and American pressure against the French policy toward Germany led France to take a more conciliatory approach to Germany by 1924
F. The Hopeful Years (1924-1929)
1. a new German government led by Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) ended the policy of passive resistance and committed Germany to carry most of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles while seeking relief on the issue of reparations
2. Dawes Plan (August, 1924)
a. named after the American banker who chaired the commission which produced a new plan for reparations
b. the plan reduced reparations and stabilized Germany’s payments on the basis of its ability to pay
c. granted a $200 million loan for German recovery 
d. opened the door for heavy US investment in Europe that helped create a new era of European prosperity between 1924 and 1929 but would cause a financial crisis after that time period
3. Locarno Pact (1925)
a. treaty signed by Germany (Stresemann) and France (Briand)
b. guaranteed Germany’s western borders with Belgium and France
c. pact was viewed by many as the beginning of a new era of European peace
4. Germany’s entrance into the League of Nations in 1926 reinforced the new spirit of conciliation
5. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
a. drafted by American Secretary of State (Frank Kellogg) and French foreign minister (Aristide Briand)
b. sixty-three countries eventually signed the pact in which the signees “renounced war as an instrument of national policy”
c. no provisions were made in the pact for would-be violators
6. numerous disarmament conferences failed to achieve anything substantial as states proved unwilling to trust their security to anyone but their own military forces (Note: Germany had already been disarmed)
7. the new peaceful coexistence between the West and Soviet Russia was another hopeful sign during the 1920s
a. Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, and several other European nations established full diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia by 1924
b. the West remained suspicious of Russia due to its support of Comintern 
G. The Great Depression
1. two factors played an important role in the coming of the Great Depression:
a. a downturn in domestic economies
b. an international crisis created by the collapse of the American stock market in 1929
1. much of the European prosperity between 1924 and 1929 had been built upon American bank loans to Germany
2. the crash of the stock market caused panicky American investors to pull out money from Germany and other European markets
2. During 1932, one British worker in four was unemployed
3. 40% of the German labor force was out of work in 1932
4. US industrial production fell by almost 50%
5. men unable to provide for their families became open to the simple solutions to the economic crisis provided by demagogues
6. the classical liberal remedy for depression, a deflationary policy of balanced budgets, which involved cutting costs by lowering wages and raising tariffs to exclude other countries’ goods from home markets, only served to worsen the economic crisis and create mass discontent
7. this discontent led to the rise of authoritarian movements in most areas of Europe
II. THE DEMOCRATIC STATES
A. Great Britain
1. after WW I, Great Britain went through a period of painful readjustment and serious economic difficulties
2. the postwar decline of such staple industries as coal, steel, and textiles led to a rise in unemployment, which reached the 2 million mark in 1921
3. by 1923, British politics experienced a major transformation when the Labour Party surged ahead of the Liberal Party as the 2nd most powerful party in Britain after the Conservative Party (Ramsey MacDonald became the first British Prime Minister from the Labour Party when he led a short-lived Labour-Liberal coalition government)
4. smearing MacDonald as a communist sympathizer, the Conservatives took power back and led Britain through a fleeting period of prosperity from 1925 to 1929
5. the Labour Party regained power on the eve of the Great Depression but were forced from power for failing to solve the nation’s economic policies
6. a “National Government” which consisted of members of all three major parties claimed credit for bringing Britain out of the worst depths of the depression using balanced budgets and protective tariffs 
7. no political party in Great Britain dominated politics in that country between the wars 
B. France
1. after the defeat of Germany and the demobilization of the German army, France had become the strongest power on the European continent
2. the conservative National Bloc government, led by Raymond Poincare sought to use German reparations to rebuild Northeastern France
3. when Poincare’s government was forced to raise taxes to pay for the cost of the Ruhr fiasco, his National Bloc was replaced by the so-called Cartel of the Left
4. the Cartel of the Left was a coalition government formed by the radical and socialist parties (radicals, mainly democratic, and the socialists, committed to Marxism, government fell apart over disagreements on how best to proceed on economic issues)
5. Poincare returned to rule from 1926 to 1929 (relative prosperity) 
6. France’s balanced economy and conservative investment policies delayed the effects of the Great Depression until 1932
7. the Popular Front, left-wing coalition, took control in 1936 and initiated a program some have called the French New Deal
a. right to bargain collectively
b. forty-hour work week
c. two-week paid vacations
d. minimum wages
8. Popular Front disintegrated by 1938 and France was experiencing a decline in confidence in its political leaders
C. The Scandinavian States
1. the Scandinavian states were particularly successful in coping with the Great Depression
2. Social Democratic governments greatly expanded social services
a. increased old age pensions
b. increased unemployment insurance
c. subsidized housing
d. free prenatal care
e. maternity allowances
f. annual paid vacations
3. required higher taxes and large bureaucracies (did not prevent private and cooperative enterprises from prospering particularly in Sweden)
D. United States
1. after Germany, no country suffered more from the Great Depression than the United States
2. industrial output decreased by 50% and there were 15 million unemployed
3. Franklin Roosevelt who took office in 1933 enacted a New Deal policy that created:
a. FDIC and SEC
b. Federal Emergency Relief Agency
c. Civilian Conservation Corps 
d. Works Progress Administration
e. Social Security
4. New Deal policies brought about slow economic recovery through greater government intervention in the economy
5. WW II ended the depression once and for all
III. THE RETREAT FROM DEMOCRACY: THE AUTHORITARIAN AND TOTALITARIAN STATES
A. the apparent triumph of liberal democracy in 1919 proved extremely short-lived with the rise of totalitarian states
1. by 1939, only two major states (Great Britain and France) and a host of minor ones (Czechoslovakia, the Low Countries, the Scandinavian states, and Switzerland) remained democratic
2. the immediate origins of totalitarianism can be found in the total warfare of WW I when governments, even in democratic states, exercised control over economic, political, and personal freedom in order to achieve victory
3. the totalitarian regimes of Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union hoped to control every aspect of their citizens’ lives
a. Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany grew out of extreme rightist preoccupations with nationalism and, in Germany’s case, racism
b. Communism in Soviet Russia emerged out of Marxian socialism 
B. Fascist Italy
1. the Birth of Fascism
a. the first Fascist state in Europe was Italy
b. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) [Il Duce]
1. leader of the Fascist movement in Italy
2. initially an elementary school teacher
3. in 1912, became editor of the important socialist daily newspaper, Avanti (left the paper and the party over his support of Italy’s military involvement in WW I)
4. in 1919, formed a new political group called Fascio di Combattimento (initially socialist)
5. initially not very successful, he shifted his party to the far right (gained support of the middle-class and wealthy industrialists who were fearful of the leftist parties)
6. the growth of Mussolini’s Fascist movement was also aided by popular, nationalistic resentment toward Italy’s treatment following WW I (700,000 Italian soldiers died and they didn’t receive all the territory they thought they had coming to them)
7. Mussolini used the Squadristi, armed bands of Fascists, as an instrument of violence to intimidate enemies (200,000 in number)
8. sensing the political instability of the time, Mussolini planned on marching his Fascists into Rome to seize power (calculated bluff)
9. King Victor Emmanuel III capitulated pre-march and made Mussolini prime minister on October 24, 1922 
2. Mussolini and the Italian Fascist State
a. the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti by the Fascists in 1924 forced Mussolini to make a push for dictatorial powers 
b. the institutional framework of Mussolini’s Fascist dictatorship never created the degree of totalitarian control found in Russia and Germany in the 1930s
c. Women in Mussolini’s Fascist Italy were largely forced through government legislation to become homemakers
d. The Lateran Accords of 1929 
1. agreement reached between Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Church
2. recognized Catholicism as the sole religion of Italy 
3. gave the church autonomy over Vatican City
4. gave church a large grant of money
5. in return, the Roman Catholic Church urged Italians to support the Fascist regime
C. Hitler and Nazi Germany
1. Weimar Germany and the Rise of the Nazis
a. Weimar Republic
1. democratic government known as the Weimar Republic was set up in Germany following WW I
2. only two strong leaders, Streseman and Ebert died during the decade of the 1920s
3. Paul von Hindenburg was elected President in 1925 (anti-republican, monarchist)
4. fought off rebellions from the left and right
5. the government never really controlled the military or various other bureaucracies
6. post WW I depression and Great Depression were killers for the fledgling republic
b. Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
1. born on April 20, 1889, the son of an Austrian customs official
2. a failure as a student in secondary school, he eventually made his way to Vienna to pursue a career in art (failed)
3. despite his eventual failure as an artist, the years Hitler spent in Vienna, 1908-1913, were formative years as he developed many of his fundamental ideas 
a. extreme German nationalism
b. anti-Semitism
c. advocated his own version of Social Darwinism (the need for struggle)
4. Hitler’s influences while in Vienna included:
a. the demagogic, anti-Semitic, and mass political party methods of the Austrian Karl Lueger (mayor of Vienna)
b. the racist and nationalist diatribes of Lanz von Liebenfels (ex-Catholic monk)
c. the musical dramas of Richard Wagner
5. Moved to Munich without a purpose in 1913, but joined the army after war was declared in 1914
6. during WW I, Hitler acted as a dispatch runner (extremely dangerous), fought on the frontline, and received medals for his bravery in combat
7. after the war, he returned to Munich where he decided to pursue a career in politics (joined the obscure German Workers Party)
8. by 1921, Hitler through the force of his personality, was in complete control of the party, which he renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) [Nazis for short]
9. Hitler worked tirelessly to develop the Nazis into a mass political movement with flags, party badges, uniforms, its own newspaper, and its own party militia (SA---storm troops)
10. sensing weakness in the liberal government, Hitler led an unsuccessful revolt on November 8, 1923 known as the Beer Hall Putsch (quickly crushed; sentenced to 5 years in prison)
2. The Nazi Seizure of Power
a. the Beer Hall Putsch and the subsequent imprisonment brought about a major turning point in Hitler’s career (reinforced his faith in himself and his mission)
b. while in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf which was an autobiography which outlined his political ideology
1. extreme German nationalism
2. virulent anti-Semitism
3. vicious anti-communism
4. concept of Social Darwinism that stressed the right of superior nations to “Lebensraum” (living space)
5. his discussion of mass propaganda, mass psychology, and mass organizations of people broke new ground
c. upon release from prison, Hitler set out to reestablish his sole authority over the party and organize it for the lawful takeover of power.
d. the late 1920s were a period of building and waiting (party membership increased from 27,000 members in 1925 to 178,000 members by 1929)
e. In 1929, Hitler began to pursue middle-class and lower-class votes in small towns and rural areas as well as their traditional urban worker base
f. Germany’s economic difficulties made possible the Nazi rise to power
g. The economic and psychological impact of the Great Depression made extremist parties more attractive
h. the liberal government was in shambles as President Hindenburg ruled by decree
i. by July of 1932, the Nazis were the largest party represented in the Reichstag
j. with the support of industrial magnates, landed aristocrats, military establishment, and higher bureaucrats Hitler was able to pressure the aging Hindenburg to name Hitler chancellor on January 30, 1933
k. On February 27, 1933, the Reichstag burned down due to arson
l. Hitler used the fire as an excuse to exercise emergency powers which suspended all basic rights for citizens during the duration of the crisis (allowed the Nazis to arrest people without cause)
m. On March 23, 1933, Hitler solidified his power for good with the passage of the Enabling Act (for all intensive purposes made Hitler dictator)
n. With the power granted by the Enabling Act, the Nazis acted quickly to enforce “Gleichschaltung” (coordinated all institutions under Nazi control)
o. Nazis had wide appeal because they presented a stronger image of a new dynamic Germany
p. the SA which Hitler had used effectively in his rise to power now was viewed as a hindrance to Hitler’s goal of gaining the complete confidence of the military establishment
q. on June 30, 1934, “the Night of the Long Knives”, Hitler ordered a number of leading SA and Nazi leaders killed including Ernst Rohm leader of the SA and long-time supporter (received complete support from the army in return)
3. The Nazi State
a. the Nazis pursued the creation of a totalitarian state in a variety of ways
1. mass demonstrations and spectacles were employed to integrate the German nation into a collective fellowship and to mobilize it as an instrument for Hitler’s policies
2. many historians believe that Hitler fostered rivalry within the party and between the party and state, so he would have to be the final decision maker
3. despite establishing control economically, the Nazis didn’t nationalize industry (public works along with rearmament sent the nation’s unemployment from 6 million in 1932 to 500,000 in 1937)
4. the German Labor Front, a single state controlled union, regulated the world of labor (strict police control of the working classes)
5. the SS, under Heinrich Himmler, went from being Hitler’s bodyguards to being the country’s secret and regular police force (known for use of terror and their racial ideology)
6. the Catholic and Protestant churches, primary and secondary schools, and universities were brought under the control of the Nazis
7. Hitler Youth (boys) and the League of German Maidens (girls) were set up to indoctrinate the youth of Germany to Hitler’s ways and thus guaranteeing the foundation for a strong totalitarian state for the future
b. the Nazi total state was intended to be an Aryan racial state
1. on April 1, 1933 the Nazis initiated a two-day boycott of Jewish businesses
2. a series of laws followed which barred non-Aryans from the legal profession, civil service, judgeships, the medical profession, teaching positions, cultural and entertainment enterprises, and the press
3. in 1935, using the famous and spectacular Nuremberg rally as a backdrop, Hitler issued the “Nuremberg Laws” which excluded German Jews from citizenship and forbade marriage and extramarital relations between Jews and German citizens
4. on the nights of November 9 & 10, 1938, the infamous Kristallnacht took place which consisted of Jewish synagogues being torched, 7,000 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 100 Jews were killed, and 30,000 Jewish males were rounded up and sent to concentration camps
5. the violence led to Jews being banned from all public buildings and being prohibited from owning, managing, or working in any retail store
c. the Nazi state also impacted the lives of women
1. the Nazis believed that women played a crucial role in the Aryan racial state as bearers of the children who would bring about the triumph of the Aryan race
2. the Nazis tried to drive women out of jobs in heavy industry and other professions that might hinder women from bearing healthy children
3. women, especially if they were married, were also discouraged from pursuing jobs deemed “inappropriate for women” such university teaching, medicine, and law 
4. they were encouraged to pursue careers in nursing and social work
D. Soviet Russia
1. during the civil war, Lenin had pursued a policy of “war communism”
a. the government nationalized transportation and communication facilities as well as banks, mines, factories, and businesses that employed more than ten people
b. the government also had the right to requisition the produce of peasants
c. policy worked during the war, but after the war, peasants started undermining the program by hoarding food
2. a great famine caused by drought killed 5 million Russians between 1920 and 1922
3. industrial output had dropped to 20% of 1913 levels
4. the New Economic Policy (NEP)
a. in March 1921, Lenin pulled Russia back from the abyss by aborting war communism in favor of his NEP
b. NEP was a modified version of the old capitalist system that implicitly acknowledged the economic failures of early Russian Communism
1. forced requisitioning of food from peasants was halted
2. peasants were allowed to sell their produce openly
3. retail stores as well as small industries that employed fewer than 20 people could operate under private ownership
4. heavy industry, banking, and mines remained under government control
5. Soviet agriculture climbed to 75% of its prewar levels
6. Industry finally reached prewar levels by 1926
c. NEP saved Communist Russia from complete economic disaster even though Lenin and other leading Communists intended it to be only a temporary, tactical retreat from the goals of communism
5. Struggle for Power
a. between 1922 and 1924, Lenin suffered a series of strokes that finally led to his death on January 21, 1924
b. his death inaugurated a struggle for power among the members of the Politburo (leading decision-making body of the party)
c. in 1924, the Politburo of seven members was severely divided over the future direction of Soviet Russia
1. the Left, led by Leon Trotsky, wanted to end NEP and launch Russia on the path of rapid industrialization (also wanted to spread the revolution abroad)
2. the Right rejected the cause of world revolution and wanted to concentrate on constructing a socialist state in Russia (also favored a continuation of NEP)
3. these ideological differences were underscored by an intense personal rivalry between Leon Trotsky and Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin (party general secretary appointed the regional, district, city, and town party secretaries)
4. by the strength of his 10,000 appointments, Stalin, who threw his support to the Right, used his position as party general secretary to gain control of the party after Lenin’s death (Trotsky was forced into exile in 1927; later killed in Mexico City in 1940 by a KGB agent)
6. The Stalin Era (1928-1939)
a. Stalin made a significant shift in economic policy in 1928 when he launched his first of two Five Year Plans
1. goal was to transform Russia from an agricultural country to an industrial country virtually overnight
2. this plan emphasized maximum production of capital goods and armaments at the expense of consumer goods
3. succeeded in quadrupling the production of heavy machinery and doubling oil production
4. between 1928 and 1937, during his first two Five Year plans, steel production increased from 4 to 18 million tons per year, and hard coal output went from 36 to 128 million tons
5. new industrial cities began springing up all over the Urals and Siberia
6. investment in housing and real wages actually DECREASED during this time period (propaganda preached sacrifice for the good of the state)
b. rapid industrialization was accompanied by an equally rapid collectivization of agriculture
1. the goal of collectivization was to eliminate private farms, that had flourished under NEP, and push people into collective farms
2. by 1930, 10 million peasant households had been collectivized
3. by 1934, 26 million family farms had been collectivized into 250,000 units
4. the costs of collectivization were great as the famine that accompanied it resulted in the deaths of an estimated 10 million Russians in 1932 and 1933 
c. Stalin strengthened the party bureaucracy under his control
1. those who resisted were sent to forced labor camps
2. Stalin’s desire for sole control of decision making led to purges of Old Bolsheviks (prominent Old Bolsheviks were put on trial and sentenced to death)
3. Stalin also purged army officers, diplomats, party members, union officials, intellectuals, and numerous ordinary citizens (an estimated 8 million Russians were arrested; millions were sent to forced labor camps in Siberia never to be heard from again)
d. disturbed by a rapidly declining birthrate, Stalin also reversed much of the permissive social legislation of the early 1920s
1. outlawed abortion
2. divorced fathers who did not support their children were fined heavily
3. fines were imposed for repeated divorces
4. homosexuality was declared a criminal activity
5. the regime now praised motherhood and urged women to have large families as a patriotic duty
E. Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe
1. a number of states in Eastern Europe were not totalitarian but did possess conservative authoritarian governments
2. the new states of Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia adopted parliamentary systems
3. pre-existing kingdoms of Bulgaria and Romania gained new parliamentary constitutions in 1920
4. Greece became a republic in 1924
5. Hungary’s government was parliamentary in form, but controlled by landed aristocrats
6. at the beginning of the 1920s, political democracy seemed well established, but almost everywhere in Eastern Europe, parliamentary governments gave way to authoritarian regimes 
a. Poland established an authoritarian regime in 1926 (Marshal Pilsudski)
b. Yugoslavia had a royal dictatorship by 1929(King Alexander I) 
c. Bulgaria had a royal authoritarian regime in 1923 (King Boris II)
d. Admiral Horthy ruled Hungary since 1919
e. Chancellor Dollfuss established an authoritarian state in Austria
f. King Carol II established an authoritarian regime in Romania 
g. during the 1930s, all of the remaining parliamentary regimes succumbed to authoritarianism (only Czechoslovakia maintained a democracy [even it ended with Hitler’s seizure])
F. Dictatorship in the Iberian Peninsula
1. parliamentary governments failed to survive in Spain and Portugal
2. Spain’s parliamentary monarchy was unable to deal with the social tensions generated by the industrial boom and inflation that accompanied WW I
3. supported by King Alfonso XIII, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a successful military coup in 1923 and created a military dictatorship that lasted until 1930
4. unrest, brought about by the Great Depression, helped establish a Spanish Republic in 1931 led by a coalition of democrats and reformist socialists
5. Popular Front (leftist coalition government) took control in 1936
6. General Francisco Franco led the military in a revolt against the leftist government that senior military officers found unacceptable
7. a bloody civil war ensued which lasted three years
a. the Popular Front was aided directly by the Soviet Union and also from volunteers from western democracies such as the United States, France, and Great Britain
b. Franco’s forces were aided by the Fascist governments of Germany and Italy
c. civil war ended with the victory of General Franco, who established a conservative, authoritarian regime with the strong backing of the reactionary Spanish Catholic Church
d. the civil war was used as a dress rehearsal for WW II 
8. Portugal’s republican form of government had been replaced by a dictatorship under the leadership of Antonio Salazar in 1926
IV. THE EXPANSION OF MASS CULTURE AND MASS LEISURE
A. Radio and Movies
1. Radio
a. June 16, 1920, was the date when the first radio broadcast was attempted for a mass audience (Nellie Melba concert in London)
b. radio production and broadcasting companies increased dramatically
c. in 1926, there were 2.2 million radios in Great Britain when the BBC was made into a public corporation
d. by the end of the 1930s, there were 9 million
e. most European broadcasting systems were controlled by governments while they were privately run and financed by advertising in the US
2. Movies
a. increasingly popular form of entertainment
b. about 40% of adults in the more advanced industrial countries were attending a movie once a week(60% by the end of WW II)
c. favorite film stars lives became subject for public adoration and scrutiny
3. Tools of Propaganda
a. both movies and radio were used for propaganda purposes
b. radio and movies were used quite effectively by the Nazis to spread their message to the masses (EX: 1934 Documentary Triumph of the Will)
c. US President Franklin Roosevelt used radio “fireside chats” effectively reassure Americans on a weekly basis
B. Mass Leisure
1. Professional sporting events for mass audiences became an especially important aspect of mass leisure (EX: World Cup and Olympics)
2. Travel opportunities added new dimensions to mass leisure activities (planes, trains, buses, and private cars made excursions more popular and affordable [except for planes which were for the wealthy only])
3. Dopolavoro was a national recreational agency in Italy sponsored by Fascists as a way to strengthen public support of Mussolini’s regime
4. Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy) attempted to monitor and homogenize the leisure time of the German workers, building support for corrupt Nazi policies
5. across Europe, local popular culture was increasingly replaced by national or even international culture as new forms of mass production and consumption brought similar styles of clothing and fashion to people
V. CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL TRENDS IN THE INTER-WAR YEARS
--the artistic and intellectual innovations of the pre-World War I period, which had shocked many Europeans, had been the preserve primarily of a small group of avant-garde artists and intellectuals
--the optimistic liberal-rationalist cliches that many Europeans had taken for granted before 1914 seemed hopelessly outdated in 1918
--art and intellectual trends in the inter-war years were concerned with a sense of disillusionment with Western Civilization provoked by the horrors of WW I (EX: German writer Oswald Spengler’s Decline of the West)
--political and economic uncertainties were paralleled by social insecurities
(EX: new ideas on sexuality and birth control were spread during this time[Marie Stopes in Great Britain with her 1918 book Married Love])
A. Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music
1. uncertainty pervaded the cultural and intellectual achievements of the inter-war years which gave rise to both the Dada movement and Surrealism
2. Dadaism
a. attempted to enshrine the purposelessness of life
b. expressed contempt for western culture
c. promoted “anti-art” and the mockery of all known, traditional forms of artistic expression
d. was a celebration of chaos and the absurd often expressed in bizarre performances and collages of unrelated subjects
e. Tristan Tzara, a Romanian-French poet, was one of the founders of the movement
f. Hannah Hoch was a Dadaist who used the photomontage to speak on women’s issues
3. Surrealism
a. artistic movement which sought a reality beyond the material, sensible world and found it in the world of the unconscious through the portrayal of fantasies, dreams, or nightmares
b. created disturbing evocative images
c. Spaniard, Salvador Dali (1904-1989), was a master of representational Surrealism (he placed recognizable objects into unrecognizable relationships, creating a disturbing world in which the irrational became tangible)
4. Functionalism
a. movement in modern architecture that became widespread in the 1920s and 1930s (US led the way)
b. art and engineering were unified, and all unnecessary ornamentation was to be stripped away
c. American Louis H. Sullivan used reinforced concrete, steel frames, and electric elevators to build skyscrapers virtually free of external ornamentation
d. Berlin, Germany architect Walter Gropius and his Bauhaus School of Art, Architecture, and Design founded in 1919 were important to the spread of functionalism and practicality in European architecture
5. Nazi Art
a. Nazi state rejected modern art as “degenerate” or “Jewish” art
b. Nazi art was simplistic, petty-bourgeois art that Hitler loved
c. portrayed sentimental and realistic scenes glorifying strong, heroic Aryans
6. Socialist Realism
a. artistic uniformity imposed on Soviet art under Stalin
b. paintings were expected to focus on a 19th century pictorial style aimed at realistic presentation
c. intended, like in Germany, to impart social values to the masses useful to the ruling regime 
7. Atonal Music
a. created by Viennese composer Arnold Schonberg (1874-1951)
b. created musical pieces in which tonality is completely abandoned
c. forced to create a new system of composition in which he used a scale composed of twelve notes independent of any tonal key
d. closely linked to abstract painting
e. did not begin to win favor until after WW II
B. The Search for the Unconscious
1. one new literary technique of the 1920s was the “stream of consciousness” technique
a. technique in which the writer presents an interior monologue, or a report of the innermost thoughts of each character

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b. James Joyce (Ulysses) and Virginia Woolf (Mrs. Dalloway and Jacob’s Room) are both famous for their “stream of consciousness” writing styles
2. German writer Herman Hesse used both Carl Jung’s psychological theories and Eastern religions and focused among other things on the spiritual loneliness of modern human beings in a mechanized urban society (greatly influenced German youth of the 1920s; won a Nobel Prize for literature in 1946)
3. The growing concern with the unconscious led to greater popular interest in psychology
a. the 1920s saw the wide acceptance of Sigmund Freud’s ideas
b. Carl Jung, a disciple of Freud, came to believe that Freud’s theories were too narrow and based on Freud’s own personal biases
c. the ideas that were central to Jung’s psychological theories included: personal unconsciousness and collective unconsciousness, the process of individuation, and universal archetypes
C. The “Heroic Age of Physics”
1. the prewar revolution in physics initiated by Max Planck and Albert Einstein continued in the inter-war period
2. in 1927, German physicist Werner Heisenberg argued that no one could determine the path of an electron because the very act of observing the electron with light affected the electron’s location
3. Heisenberg shattered confidence in predictability and dared to propose that uncertainty was at the root of all physical laws